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EDUCATION DURING 
ADOLESCENCE 

Based Partly on G, Stanley HalVs 
Psychology of Adolescence 

BY 

RANSOM A. MACKIE, M.A. 

SOMETIME SCHOLAR AND JUNIOR FELLOW IN CLARK UNIVEBSITT; 

FORMERLY INSTRUCTOR, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, 

FAIRMONT, WEST VIRGINIA 

With an Introduction by 
G. STANLEY HALL 

PRESIDENT OF CLARK UNIVERSITT 




NEW YORK 
E. p. BUTTON & COMPANY 

681 Fifth Avenue 



Copyright, 1920, 
By E. P. BUTTON & COMPANY 



All Rightt Reserved 



hbri 27 1920 



Printed in the United States of America 



©CI.A565043 



PEEFACE 



This work is intended as a general introduc- 
tion to secondary education based largely on 
tlie psychology of adolescence. Parts of some 
of tlie chapters have appeared in the Educa- 
tional Review, Education, American Education, 
the High School Quarterly, Oregon Teacher's 
Monthly, Northwest Journal of Education, and 
The Historical Outlook, formerly The History 
Teacher's Magazine. Various sections have 
been read by Dean F. E. Bolton, Mr. 0. L. 
Luther, Mr. J. W. Graham, Professor L. F. 
Jackson and Professor G. C. Eobinson. 

It seems fitting and proper that I should base 
the principles of secondary education partly 
on the work of the famous educator and dis- 
tinguished psychologist, G. Stanley Hall, Presi- 
dent of Clark University, whose wonderful 
power and influence are not only becoming 
more fully recognized throughout this country, 



n PREFACE 

but also in foreign lands. His work is now 
being **felt in every department of the school 
system, and in all fields of activity in which 
human welfare is an ideal, both at home and 
abroad.'' 

Dr. Hall's ** distinctively original" produc- 
tions, i.e., his books on Adolescence, published 
in 1904, gave him recognition in England and 
also on the continent of Europe. Other coun- 
tries soon realized the importance of his con- 
tributions. It was not long until in all lands 
his reputation for clear-sightedness and orig- 
inality of a conspicuous order was firmly estab- 
lished. The wide-reaching consequences of his 
work made him at once a focus of international 
interest and admiration. 

Before his books ** Educational Problems," 
consisting of two ponderous and comprehensive 
yolumes, appeared in 1911, although he was 
recognized as one of America's leading educa- 
tors, he was more widely known as a psycholo- 
gist. His new books seem to have given him 
a slightly different and perhaps a more promin- 
ent position in the pedagogical world. This 
is true, not because he changed or modified his 
original position but rather because he magni- 
fied or rather clarified his ideas by elaborating 



PREFACE vii 

and expounding more fully his pedagogic doc- 
trines. 

Dr. Hall has been looking forward to a new 
order of things in education and he has been 
very successful in his interpretations. Indeed, 
he could truly be called a pedagogical prophet 
because of the prophetic way in which he has 
delineated the education of the future. The 
world knows prophets by their fruits. The 
fruits of Dr. Hall's work can be seen every- 
where. His ideals are being realized, at least 
in some respects, in that his ** pedagogy of the 
future'' is now being put into actual operation 
in different cities and localities throughout the 
United States. 

It is encouraging to know that his pedagogic 
philosophy based upon genetic psychology and 
the needs of society, when in actual practice, 
works exceedingly well ; and the fact that many 
of his educational ideals have been put into 
practice, and are working successfully, makes 
more and more evident his effectiveness as an 
educational leader and reformer. The new 
education as expounded by Dr. Hall is meeting 
the approval of the nation. In view of these 
facts I have no apology for basing what I have 
to say partly on his works. In Chapters I, 



viii PREFACE 

V, VI, I have quoted freely from Adolescence, 
Educational Problems, Genetic Philosophy of 
Education, Pedagogical Seminary, and Pro- 
ceedings of the National Education Association. 



CONTENTS 



CBAFTEB FAOO 

Introduction by G. Stanley Hall xi 

I. Education during Adolescence . .1 

II. Six- Year High School Curricula . . 19 

III. Principle of Election in Education . 39 

IV. Changes Proposed in Secondary Ed- 

ucation 59 

V. Required Subjects: The Social Studies 79 

VI. Required Subjects: (Continued) Eng- 
lish 98 

VII. Required Subjects: (Continued) His- 
tory 1^ 



uc 



INTRODUCTION 



This work is the product of long thought and 
extensive reading and ought to be in the hands 
of every high school principal and teacher and 
of every superintendent. It represents a point 
of view which though not entirely new shows 
much original and careful thought and repre- 
sents better than anything I know the general 
principles of what I believe to be the education 
of the near future. Many of us have long 
thought that the training both of children and 
youth should be essentially based upon the 
fresh study of the pupil's own nature and needs, 
and we see here set forth in concise outline the 
conclusions which many advanced pedagogues 
have reached who believe that the prime re- 
quisite of school organizations, methods and 
subjects should be that they fit the nature and 
needs of the child. ; 



zi 



xu INTRODUCTION 

The war has compelled teachers as well as 
politicians to go back to first principles and ask, 
as genetic psychologists have long been doing, 
what is the real nature of man. They have 
done this in the belief that this is the ultimate 
source of appeal and that there must be a wide 
re-evaluation of human institutions and of edu- 
cation, not least and perhaps most of all, to fit 
the needs of the vaster future that is now open 
before us. The old education will certainly not 
suffice for the new era. Everything must be 
re-evaluated in terms of man's innate capacities 
and spontaneities, and many old topics are sure 
to be seen in a new light. There should es- 
pecially be a redistribution between required 
and elective work. The relative stress laid upon 
ancient versus modern languages and the in- 
creased importance of English language and 
literature are among the most imperative and 
certain changes, as is the new stress to be laid 
upon practical and applied subjects. 

Greek has already lost its former place in 
the high school, and Latin is likely to lose much 
of its prominence despite the very active and 
well-organized propaganda of the classicists to 
represent it as the only resource of culture 
against Kultur, We can no longer ignore the 



INTRODUCTION xiii 

vast waste of time, energy, and money spent 
in Latin by those who drop it before any profi- 
ciency is acquired and whose wretched transla- 
tion into English, dulls, in fact, just that finer 
sense of style which Latinists claim that it 
gives. The fact is the modern world, especially 
since the war, has become vastly more interest- 
ing and important than anything which clas- 
sical culture can give us. We are prone to for- 
get that any, even vocational, topics can be made 
more or less cultural. We forget, too, that 
the Greek and Latin authors knew no other 
language than their own, and their style would 
in all probability have been marred if they had 
dabbled in dead languages as we do. In Eng- 
lish, too, we need a radical change from the 
present excessive attention given to form in 
order to give content the chief place. Exten- 
sive reading in English for the young is vastly 
more effective than the study of verbiage and 
style now so stressed. Moreover, it is too often 
practically forgotten that English has its root 
in the Anglo-Saxon language and that if we 
really would imitate the French educators who 
are now urging that Latin be restored and 
stressed in the Lycee, we should, by the same 
token, stress Anglo-Saxon, for the roots of our 



m INTRODUCTION 

mother tongue grew in tlie atmosphere of the 
North Sea and not in the Adriatic. 

We must bear in mind that interest is the 
very Holy Ghost of education and that so-called 
formal studies and methods of discipline are 
only, for the most part, a delusion and a snare. 
They make degenerate mental tissue. It is not 
culture to learn to speak or write well upon 
trivial or indefinite subjects but rather to keep 
up with the great human interests, which will 
come to expression spontaneously if they are 
given a fair chance to do so. 

Even our educational psychology is for the 
most part antiquated. It lives, moves, and has 
its being in a pre-evolutionary age, and was, 
with a few striking exceptions, developed by 
those who had no knowledge of the wonderful 
advances that had been lately made in our 
knowledge of the will, feelings, sentiments, and 
especially of the great surge of racial life that 
always and everywhere tends to expand the soul 
of the individual in the teens toward the dimen- 
sions of that of the race. These changes our 
system in general tends to ignore when they 
ought, on the contrary, to be more and more 
stressed. 

Mr. MacMe has seen these new tendencies, 



INTRODUCTION xv 

whicli have already begun to work their great 
transformations, so that his book, coming as it 
does when the minds of educators the world 
over are more open than ever before, appears 
at the psychological moment. 

G. STANLEY HALL. 

Clark University 
July, 1919. 



EDUCATION DURING 
ADOLESCENCE 



.fl\J! 



EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 



CHAPTER I 

EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 

Peesident G. Stanley Hall of Clark Univer- 
sity, basing his views not only on the needs 
of society, but on the needs of the adolescent, 
maintains that the main purpose of secondary 
education is to ** train character, to suggest, 
to awaken, to graft interest, to give range and 
loftiness of sentiment of view,^ to broaden 
knowledge and to bring everything in touch 
with life.^ 

^In connection with this statement, Dr. Hall reminds us 
that "the Greek teacher of youth chose to be called an 
inspirer." See his article in the School Review for Dec, 
1901, p. 651, Fed. Sem., Mar., 1902, p. 94. 

''See Genetic Philosophy of Education: An epitome of 



2 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 

Education during adolescence, Dr. Hall be- 
lieves, ** should seek to feed the interests and 
capacities peculiar to the adolescent age; it 
should aim to fill and develop mind, heart, will, 
and body rather than attempt to distill a budget 
of prepared knowledge decreed by professors 
who know no more of the needs of this age 
than teachers of other grades.^ The only 
specialization that should be stressed far more 
is the vocational. The boy should be helped on 
toward ability to earn a living and the girl 
toward what is necessary in the conduct of 
a home,''* 

To fulfill these aims not only the materials 
of education, but the methods of instruction 
should be vitalized, humanized. 

G. S. Hall's Writings, by Dr. George E. Partridge, p. 213. 
See also G. S. Hall's "The High School as the People's 
College versus the Fitting School." Ped. Sem., Mar., 1902, 
pp. 70-71. Proc. N. E. A. 1902. 

»G. S. Hall, Ideal School Based on Child Study. Proc. 
N. E. A., 1901, p. 487, The Forum, Sept., 1901, Vol. XXXII, 
p. 37. "Adolescence, 2 Vols., D. Appleton & Company (1904) 
Educational Problems, 2 Vols., (1911). These works con- 
sider education from the point of view of genetic psy- 
chology and the needs of society. 

«G. S. HaU, Educational Problems, Vol. II, p. 651. 



EDUCATION DURINa ADOLESCENCE 3 

It is not difficult to understand why Dr. Hall 
holds such views. It is because he bases his 
high school pedagogy largely on the psychology 
of adolescence. He calls attention to the sig- 
nificance and some of the psychic characteristics 
of youth in the following statements: ** Prob- 
ably the most important changes for the 
educator to study are those which begin be- 
tween the ages of twelve and sixteen and are 
completed only some years later when the 
young adolescent receives from nature a new 
capital of energy and altruistic feeling. It is a 
physiological second birth, and success in life 
depends upon the care and wisdom with which 
this new and final invoice of energy is hus- 
banded.'' ** 

During later childhood pupils *'need much 
drill, habituation, authority and memory work ; 
but as adolescence slowly supervenes and boy- 
hood is molted, the method of freedom and ap- 
peal to interest and spontaneity should be in- 
creased. Now the best things are springing up 

"G. S. Hall, Youth: Its Education, Regimen, and Hy- 
giene, p. 359. 



4 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 

in the human soul. If there is any genius or 
talent, enthusiasm for work or for ideals, they 
begin now to be felt. If the race is ever to 
advance, it will not be by increasing the aver- 
age longevity or directly by enriching the last 
stages of life, but by prolonging this period of 
development so that youth shall not die and its 
zest and enthusiasm grow pale."^ 

Further, *'It is the time when there is the 
most rapid development of the heart and all 
the feelings and emotions. Fear, anger, love, 
pity, jealousy, emulation, ambition and sym- 
^ pathy are either now born or springing into 
their most intense life. Now young people are 
interested in adults, and one of their strongest 
passions is to be treated as if they were mature. 
They desire to Imow, do, and be, all that be- 
comes a man or woman. Childhood is ending 
and plans for future vocations now spring into 
existence, and slowly grow definite and con- 
trolling."^ 

• G. S. Hall, School Review, Dec, 1901, "How Far is the 
Present High School and Early College Training Adapted 
to the Nature and Needs of Adolescents?" 

' Proceedings N. E. A., 1901, p. 483. 



EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 5 

According to the last statement vocational 
education is in harmony with the psychology of 
adolescence. '*We must provide all opportunity 
for selective interests, for giving scope to 
special ability and inclination, keeping youth in 
touch with real life, and at the same time mak- 
ing training truly cultural. There must be 
many kinds of courses and schools, technical 
and every other kind of industrial institute, 
open day and evening. We greatly need, too, 
vocational experts who, by studying the capaci- 
ties of individuals, will help to eliminate the 
waste in human energy now so prevalent, and 
to bring the young more successfully to the stage 
of citizenship and self-respect which comes 
only through self-support.''^ 

The idea that some educators have that fit- 
ting for college and fitting for life are identical 
is a pernicious doctrine, according to Dr. Hall. 
He thinks that it can more truly be said that 
fitting for college is unfitting for life, so 

■Genetic Philosophy of Education, p. 139. See also 
Educational Problems, Vol. I. Chapter on "Industrial 
Education." 



6 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 

clerical, sedentary, bookish, and arbitrary is 
the high school teaching. Almost nothing of 
the current high school courses appeals to the 
best powers of the youth, and those subjects 
that perhaps are best fitted for the time are 
likely to be taught in such a way as to rob 
them of all their educative value. The logical 
order and divisions of subjects everywhere 
prevail and take precedence over the psy- 
chological.® 

The college professors are to some extent 
responsible for this condition of affairs for 
they tell the high schools what to do and how 
to do it. But it should not be a question, what 
does the college require, but rather, what does 
^he student need, what is best for the boy and 
girl at this stage of development. The high 
school should act independently of the college 
and should aim to serve one period of growth 
in the best way possible. It should give to each 
boy and girl what is individually best at this 
time for the youth's mental, moral, and phys- 

■G. E, Partridge, Genetic Philosophy of Education, pp. 
314-16. 



EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 7 

ical development. If this is done, the student 
will be well prepared for college. 

The high school should dictate to the college 
rather than take * ^ dictation. ' ' The college is 
going just a little too far when it tells the 
high school what it shall teach, and what it 
shall not teach ; what methods it shall use, and 
what methods it shall not use. The college has 
no right, no power, no authority whatsoever to 
dictate to the high school. That power lies 
solely, exclusively with the school authorities, 
and ultimately with the people who support the 
high school. It should therefore be responsive 
to their needs and desires. The people are 
demanding that the high school shall give each 
student the training that will be worth while 
in the conduct of life, and if it does this, the 
student will be well fitted to enter college for 
further training. The college should take the 
high school student where it finds him, and then 
proceed in its own way to build the next higher 
stage. 

With reference to ** college domination,'' a 
point we have just discussed briefly. Dr. Hall 



8 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 

says: **Tlie high school should no longer be : 
content to play an obligato for the college sym- 
phony. The high school authorities should say 
to the dons who manipulate the bachelor's 
degree, *Here are our graduates for whom we 
have done what we deem best for their stage 
of life. We and not you are judges of what 
this is. Take them or leave them,' and the 
college with its intense competition for students 
would gladly accept the conditions and in the 
end would greatly profit by it in the number 
of students. "^'^ 

Everyone **who can profit more by being in 
college than elsewhere has a right to be there. 
. . . There is no tragedy in our system quite 
equal to that of holding up a bright earnest 
young man for a year before granting him the 
high school diploma because he failed by a 
point or two." ^^ Further, the whole system of 
standardization of units is wrong, for it takes 
no account of **the human element by which 

>» Educational Problems, Vol. II, p. 622, Cf. Fed. Sem., 
Mar., 1902, p. 72. 
" Ibid., p. 663. 



EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 9 

man judges man in society, in business, and in 
the world generally, in all affairs." ^^ **The 
only question the college has a right to ask is 
whether or not the boy and girl can do the 
work offered and get more out of it than in any 
other stage. " ^^ 

College professors are not entirely respon- 
sible for the present status of secondary educa- 
tion. There is another reason for complaint: 
As a rule teachers in high school are not in- 
terested enough in the psychology of adoles- 
cence. The studies are not chosen with refer- (/ 
ence to suitability to the capacity of the/ 
student, and they are not taught in such a way 
as to take advantage of the natural learning 
methods of the adolescent age. In view of these 
facts, Dr. Hall says, that *'the time has now 
fully come when we must invoke the American 
muse of common sense and seriously ask 
whether the high school is doing the most and 
best that it can and should, or is accomplishing 
what the community has a right to expect from 

"Educational Problems, Vol. II, p. 647. 
"Ibid, p. 623. 



10 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 

it. Dissatisfaction with the methods, matter, 
and results are wide-spread and increasing/' ^* 

The changes needed in the high school are 
so radical that they involve not only the 
methods of teaching and the subjects of instruc- 
tion, but the entire conception of the function 
of the high school. It must fit better for life 
the great majority who go no farther, and be 
so changed as to prevent the loss of the three- 
fourths who drop out of the course before the 
end. ^^ And in order to do this we must recog- 
i^Hize what Dr. Hall says, viz., the young adoles- 
cent is *'a new kind of being which demands 
a new environment, new methods, and new 
matter/' 

In regard to method, the ** drill and mechan- 
ism of the previous period must be gradually 
relaxed, and an appeal must be made to free-^ 
dom and interest. . . . We can no longer coerce 
and break, but must lead and inspire. To drill 
merely is now to arrest." The class room work 
should be vitalized by transferring the discus- 

"G. S. Hall, Educational Problems, Vol. II, p. 647. 
"Genetic Philosophy of Education, p. 316. 



\ 



EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 11 

sions and conversations to the class circle. Ques- 
tions, criticisms, and suggestions should be 
between the students, with the teacher only 
occasionally drawn in, rather than always be- 
tween the teacher and some student. (See 
Chapter VII, Section ni.) 

The subjects of instruction should be vital- 
4ze4, as well as the methods of teaching. The 
vitalization of the high school means, among 
other things, the elimination of certain studies, 
or at least parts of certain studies, and the 
substitution therefor of studies and work of 
social, moral, vocational, and psychological 
•significance. The new subject-matter that 
ought to be introduced during adolescence will 
be in harmony with the interests and capacities 
of boys and girls in this stage of development. 
**Each individual must be studied and made a 
special problem and the work adapted to his 
nature and needs, if his personality is to come 
to full maturity. Hence, there must be a Vide 
range of elective study for those who continue 
at school.'' If our high school education were 
based to a greater extent on the psychology 



12 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 

of adolescence it would take a stronger hold 
on the ** interests and affections of the pupil." *• 

If the aims of high school education are to 
be approximately fulfilled, if secondary educa- 
tion is to be vitalized — humanized, much is re- 
quired of the teachers. Above all, they should 
not be too precise, for pupils are at the age 
**when the soul cries out for wholes, not de- 
tails; for facts, not formulae; for growth, not 
for logical order ; for crude masses of informa- 
tion, not for accuracy or analysis. Whenever 
we insist upon accuracy and finish we are forc- 
ing nature, which decrees that youth should be 
kept plastic and growing." 

In teaching, large conceptions rather than 
details should be presented, for quantity and 
enrichment are more to be desired than ac- 
curacy. Examinations " should have but little 
place in high school education. Definite, com- 
plete, systematic knowledge should not be 
stressed. All studies that are merely formal, 

*• Forum, Sept., 1901, pp. 35-37. 

" Ideal School as Based on Child Study, Proc. N. E. A., 
1901. p. 485. 



EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 13 

which require drill and drudgery, such as the 
languages,/, should have a very subordinate 
place in the curriculum, for in dull drill valu- 
able time is consumed, without adequate com- 
pensation. Everything that might cause ar- 
rested development should be eliminated." 
This is particularly true in regard to the educa- 
tion of girls during adolescence. According to 
our authority, '*the first aim which should 
dominate every item, pedagogic method and 
matter should be health, a momentous word 
that looms up beside holiness, to which it is 
etymologically akin. The new hygiene of the 
last few years should be supreme and make 
these academic areas sacred to the cult of the 
goddess Hygeia.''^® 

We cannot recall to mind too often what Dr. 
Hall says in his epoch-making work Educa- 
tional Problems : The mind during adolescence 
/* craves masses of general and germinal knowl- 
^edge and needs to see large surfaces without 

"Genetic Philosophy of Education, pp. 211-13. 

» G. S. Hall, Adolescence, Vol. II, p. 637. See also Child 
Study: The Basis of Exact Education, Forum, Dec, 1893, 
p. 436. 



14 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 

the thorougliness and accuracy which is not yet 
germane. For this they are too immature. 
The age for doing everything well, or not at 
all, has not yet come. The muse of exactness 
needs older devotees. Now the soul absorbs 
suggestions, typical facts in a vague and xm- 
accountable way. This is the time of extensive- 
ness and not intensiveness ; culture to be best 
instilled, should be general, and the only 
specialization that should be stressed far more 
than at present should be vocational. The boy 
should be helped on toward ability to earn a 
living and the girl toward what is necessary 
in the conduct of a home. These are the prime 
and essential considerations and all else rings 
hollow." 2^ 

Comment 

In view of what has been said, it seems to 
me, that the high school should have at least 
four specific aims: 

First: Physical well-being, fostered not 

"G. S. HaU, Educational Problems, Vol. II. p. 651. 



EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 15 

merely by gymnastic exercises, by reading 
books on physiology, and by listening to lec- 
tures on hygiene, but by a face to face study 
of, and experience with, the conditions of 
wholesome living. ^^ Many other things may 
be important, but the adolescent's ** first busi- 
ness is to grow. He may have another oppor- 
tunity for the acquisition of kaowledge, but the 
demand for physical development cannot 
wait, ' '^^ and furthermore, we should bear in mind 
that "among the habits distinctly conducive 
to health must be reckoned active interests in 
nature, in outdoor sports, in varied forms of 
artistic activity, in social life and social in- 
stitutions." ^^ 

Second: Vocational Guidance: This is of 
fundamental importance to the great majority 
of high school students. The teachers should 
do everything possible to awaken, arouse, 
stimulate, and direct the interests and en- 

"Cf. David Snedden's article in Charities and Commons, 
Apnl 25, 1908. 

2'W. H. Burnham, Proc. N. E. A., pp. 727-734. 

"W. H. Burnham's article in Monroe's Cyclopedia of 
Education, Vol. I, pp. 44-46. 



16 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 

thusiasm of the student and besides a syste- 
matic effort should he made to discover the 
student's dominant interests and powers and 
thus assist him in the choice of the vocation 
in which he is most likely to succeed. But this 
is not all. The high school should actually give 
some vocational instruction for those who do 
not care to, or cannot go on to some higher 
institution of learning. A suggestion might be 
added : The work should me made entirely flex- 
ible and should offer numerous opportunities 
for a change of course as a student's inclina- 
tions are modified or his tendencies are de- 
veloped. 

Third: Personal Culture.^* This is not to 
be attained by studying Greek, Latin, other 
foreign languages, and mathematics^^ accord- 
ing to contemporary authorities, but rather 
through the influence of cultured people and by 
receiving instruction in subjects that have a 
direct bearing on the conduct and problems of 

"Henry Suzzallo, tntroduction to C. W. Eliot's mono- 
graph, Education for Efficiency. 

"David Snedden, What of Liberal Education. Atlantic 
Monthly, Jan., 1912. 



EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 17 

life. Although no study will necessarily make 
a person cultured, and while the classics and 
other foreign languages and mathematics may 
do something toward fulfilling the personal cul- 
ture aim, history, literature and modern civic 
and social problems will undoubtedly do more 
in this direction than the foreign languages and 
mathematics. In order to be truly cultural, 
education during adolescence should, as already 
pointed out, aim **to train character, to sug- 
gest, to awaken, to graft interests, to give 
range and loftiness of sentiment of view.'' It 
ought *'to develop mind, heart, will and body, 
rather than attempt to distill a budget of pre- 
pared knowledge decreed by professors who 
know no more of the needs of this age than 
teachers of other grades.''^® 

Fourth: Social efficiency in the sense of 
awareness of civic and moral responsibility, 
and the desire and ability to co-operate with 
one's fellows to promote the common welfare. 
Social efficiency, which will contribute both 

"G. S. HaU, The Ideal School as Based on ChUd Study. 
Forum, Sept., 1901, pp. 24-39. 



18 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 

directly and indirectly to a person's vocational 
efficiency may be promoted, from tlie academic 
standpoint, in the same way as personal culture 
is promoted, by developing a permanent inter- 
est in reading the best literature and in study- 
ing practical problems pertaining to society 
and government and the essential facts of the 
history of civilization. Emphasis should be 
placed on preparing for service because ** serv- 
ice is the highest criterion of the worth of lives. 
We are learning that, whether in history or in 
romance, the names that shine with the fairest 
and brightest light and last longest are those 
that have done most service. The great mo- 
ments in great lives are those when the supreme 
choice is to be made between seK and the wel- 
fare of others, and the best criterion of su- 
preme manhood and womanhood is when the 
latter prevails. More and more enlightened 
public opinion is coming to distinguish between 
those who live and die for themselves and those 
who live and die by the gospel, of helpful- 
ness."" 

"Educational Problems, Vol. II, p. 668. 



CHAPTER n 

SIX-YEAR HIGH SCHOOL CURRICULA 

High scliools througliout the United States 
are beginning to base their courses of study on 
adolescent psychology and the needs of society, 
and a few of the most progressive high schools 
of the country have already put into actual 
operation and administration, features that 
are almost in harmony with the fundamental 
aims or purposes of education during adoles- 
cence as stated in the first ^chapter. 

Perhaps one of the best examples^ of these 
advanced schools is the one in Berkeley, Cali- 
fornia, which will now be considered. The rea- 
son for the selection of this institution is not 
merely because it represents present tendencies, 
but because, in some respects, it approximates 
the ideal, and thus serves to illustrate some 
admirable features in progressive high school 
reorganization. 

*"One example is worth a thousand arguments." 

19 



20 



EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 



Instead of the usual eight years of elementary 
and four years for high school work, the twelve 
grades of the public schools in Berkeley are 
divided into elementary education, comprising 
the first six grades and secondare/ education, 
comprising the grades seven to twelve inclusive. 
In order to understand just why the high school 
should be extended downward, we must speak 
of elementary as well as secondary school work. 
We must consider the whole system. 



Educational Periods, 


Schools. 


Ages. 


Grades. 


Elementary 


Primary School 

Grammar School . . . 


6to 9 
9 to 12 


1 

2 
3 
4 
5 

6 


Secondary 


Junior High School . 
Senior High School. 


12 to 15 
15 to 18 


7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 



The question naturally suggests itself: What 
is the reason for so radical a change from the 
ordinary divisions of the curriculum? Wliy 
does Berkeley have just six years for elemen- 
tary education I To answer this question, it is 



SIX-YEAR HIGH SCHOOL CURRICULA 21 

necessary to consider the aim of tlie first six 
years of schooling. The fundamental aim is to 
obtain the use of the tools of learning ; that is, 
the pupil should learn to read and write fairly 
well and to perform accurately and with some 
degree of rapidity the fundamental operations 
of arithmetic. Of course other studies may and 
should be added, but obtaining the use of the 
^* tools of learning" is the main purpose. 

Six years is certainly long enough in which 
to accomplish this. To spend more time than 
six years on elementary education exaggerates 
its importance and leads to the belief that it is 
education itself instead of preparation for an 
education. The first six years of school should 
emphasize chiefly the formal aspects of educa- 
tion. The mission of elementary education is 
to prepare for further school work. It aims 
not at knowledge itself, but at supplying the 
tools of the mind and at inculcating attitudes 
and habits of mind that will enable the in- 
dividual later to pursue knowledge and in- 
dustry. ^ 

'Dr. O. O. Davis, Reorganization of Secondary Educa- 
tion, Educational Review, Oct., 1911. 



22 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 

Statistics show that the masses are held in 
school only through the fifth grade, after which 
they drop out in very large numbers, which 
means, educationally, that whatever is to be 
taught to the masses must be given in the first 
five or six years.^ By terminating a cycle of 
work with the sixth year, unquestionably the 
tendency will be to hold such pupils at least 
one year longer, namely to the end of the sixth 
grade.* 

Something should be said briefly concerning 
the curriculum of this unique school. The first 
six years of the course is uniform for all 
children and somewhat narrow in its scope. 
The studies emphasized are those which the 
masses must have, even if they wish to start 
life with the smallest amount of preparation. 
Whether or not the pupils get anything else, 
they learn how to read, write and use their own 
language, both in oral and written form; how 

•F. M. Leavitt, Examples of Industrial Education, p. 84. 
Ginn & Co., N. Y. 

*F. F. Bunker, Reorganization of the Public School Sys- 
tem, Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. 1916, 
p. 113. 



SIX-YEAR HIGH SCHOOL CURRICULA 23 

to perform with facility and accuracy tlie simple 
operations of arithmetic and accounting; and 
they get, also in these first six years, some 
knowledge of their city, state, and national gov- 
ernment. In addition, the pupils learn the 
elementary principles of sanitation and health 
conditions which everybody should know, not 
only to protect themselves as individuals, but 
to protect society as well. All of this is effi- 
ciently accomplished in the six-year elementary 
school at Berkeley. 

As shown in the diagram on page 20, the Six- 
Year Berkeley High School curriculum is di- 
vided into two periods of three years each. The 
Introductory or Junior high school comprises 
the seventh, eighth and ninth grades, while the 
Senior or High School proper ^ is made up of 
the tenth, eleventh and twelfth grades. 

By an examination of the following program 
you may see what subjects are taught in the 
Introductory or Lower High School: 

'lu the Upper or Senior High School the only requfred 
studies are English, (3 years), Science, (1 year), and 
United States History and Government, (1 year), Physical 
Education, (1 year), and Assembly Singing, (3 years). 



24 



EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 



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SIX-YEAR HIGH SCHOOL CURRICULA 25 

Two main criticisms of this program might 
be offered: First, Plays, Games and Personal 
Hygiene ought to be emphasized; and second, 
General Science, General Mathematics and 
Vocational Information should be offered in the 
ninth grade. 

The majority of the children enter the in- 
troductory high school, at the beginning of the 
period of adolescence, when by nature they 
naturally crave an opportunity to dip into a 
wide range of subjects and activities, which is 
Nature's way of insuring freedom of choice in 
determining occupation. 

The work of the seventh, eighth and ninth 
grades comprising the Introductory high school 
is related very closely to life, and as far away 
as possible from that which is purely academic 
in education. Much emphasis is placed on learn- 
ing how to study, and how to use the library. 

The work of the Introductory High School is 
arranged in such a way as to make a more 
easy transition from the work of the elementary 
grades to the work of the high school proper. 
In regard to the need of a better transition 



26 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 

and the way the new plan meets this need F. 
F. Bunker says : * ^ The explanation for the break 
in attendance between the ninth and tenth years, 
which experience shows to be a very heavy one 
under the usual grouping of grades, lies largely 
in the fact that the pupil, coming into the high 
school from the grades, fails to make a proper 
adjustment. In consequence he begins to fail 
in his work, becomes disheartened and discour- 
aged, and drops out before he reaches the tenth 
grade; and worst of all, he drops out because 
he has failed. Throwing the seventh, eighth 
and ninth grades together in a second cycle of 
work which shall have distinguishing character- 
istics from that which precedes it, as well as 
from that which follows; arranging everything 
connected therewith to make his work a three- 
year transition period from the elementary 
school to the upper high school, and yet shap- 
ing the work so that it is a unit in itself which 
can be terminated if necessary, at the end of 
the ninth year — ^will not only tend to hold a 
year longer the pupil who would otherwise 
drop out at the end of the eighth year, but will 



SIX-YEAR HIGH SCHOOL CURRICULA 27 

go very far toward insuring a complete adjust- 
ment to tlie conditions wMcli prevail in the 
upper high school. ^ It likewise offers, at the 
end of the ninth year, an opportunity for the 
pupil to check up his own judgment, and to 
determine whether his circumstances, as well 
as his tastes, are such as to justify him in going 
on for three years more in secondary work. 
If, after making a careful survey of such mat- 
ters, he decides to leave school, he leaves con- 
scious of having succeeded rather than because 
he had failed — causing a very different reaction 
upon his character." ^ 

It is interesting to note what is said concern- 
ing the success of the new plan: **The response 
in lessening the mortality between the ninth 
and tenth grades through arranging the school 
work in three cycles, has been so immediate and 
decisive as to admit of no doubt respecting the 

• "Approximately 85 per cent of tlie children entering the 
public schools of the United States leave between the ages 
of twelve and fifteen," F. M, Leavitt, Examples of Indus- 
trial Education, p. 54, Ginn & Co., 1912. 

'F. F. Bunker, The Better Articulation of the Parts of 
the Public School System, Educational Review, March, 1914, 
Vol. XLVII, pages 263-66. 



28 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 

tendency/' It is added, however, tliat "per- 
haps, the consideration of greatest significance 
which such a plan of school organization offers, 
lies in the opportunity that it gives of radically 
changing *the nature and content of the course 
of study."® 

^Advantages of the New Plan of Organization 

The advantages of the six-year plan may he 
summarized as follows: 

First: It not only mitigates the abruptness 
of the transition from the elementary school 
and checks the loss of pupils at this critical 
period,® but it prevents pupils from leaving 
school before this time, and one of the reasons 
for this is that the new plan, among other 
things, forces the elimination of non-essentials 
in the elementary curriculum, especially in- 
herited puzzles,^** and besides, it makes "pos- 

®F. F. Bunker, Reorganization of the Public School Sys- 
tem, p. 114, Government Printing OflSce, 1916. Washington, 
D. C. 

'Proceedings, National Education Association, 1908, p. 
625. 

^° Edward Robinson. The Reorganization of the Grades 
and the High School. School Review, Dec., 1912. 



SIX-YEAR HIGH SCHOOL CURRICULA 29 

sible the teacliing of subjects at the time when 
the mind is best fitted to receive them." It is 
well known that a large percentage of the pupils, 
especially the boys, drop out because they lack 
interest in elementary school work ; so some con- 
tend that if we could get the student well set- 
tled in the high school course of study, even 
a short time before he reaches the adolescent 
period, we should have a better opportunity to 
interest and inspire him in the work of the high 
school; and, if once interested and inspired, it 
is likely he would continue through the entire 
high school course. 

Second: It is conceded by most educators 
that young adolescents should be taught by 
more men teachers than are employed under 
the present regime. Since there are more male 
teachers in the high schools this condition is 
fulfilled. Dr. Hall emphasizes the fact, that 
under the old regime, the vast majority of boys 
and girls, perhaps nineteen out of twenty, and 
often ninety-nine out of a hundred, leave school 
without ever having been, for a single day, under 
the influence of a male teacher. This he calls 



30 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 

a '* positive scandaP'" whieli has been minim- 
ized wherever the ^*Six and Six plan'' has been 
introduced, for men accept positions where they 
are allowed to present secondary school sub- 
jects in the seventh and eighth grades. He then 
mentions the effect this has on the pupils, es- 
pecially the boys. *'When they reach the teens 
and their manhood begins to bourgeon," he 
says, **they do not instantly think of school as 
a * sissy' affair, to be thrown off," and adds, 
that **ten years of secondary education in 
Europe is essentially in the hands of men."" 
Third: As the departmental plan of instruc- 
tion exists in high schools and is an essential 
part of the new plan, the pupils at the dawn 
of adolescence receive the benefit of * * daily con- 
tact with several personalities instead of that 
all day association with one teacher which often 
breeds abnormal psychic atmosphere." Au- 
thorities are practically unanimous in their con- 
tention that **the variety of teachers, equip- 
ment, methods and general conditions, the 

"Educational Problems, Vol. II, page 650. 
"Ibid., Vol. II, p. 650. 



SIX-YEAR HIGH SCHOOL CURRICULA 31 

physical relief in changing rooms, the continuity 
of superior teaching, the greater educative 
freedom, all serve to stimulate a child to his 
best endeavor. Nothing is more deadening to 
a child than to listen to the same voice, see 
the same surroundings, witness the same 
methods, and all within the narrow confines of 
a single room, and under the eye of the same 
teacher. Children become weary of this eternal 
'sameness.' "^^ Furthermore, the new plan 
gives the pupils the advantage of being taught 
by teachers especially trained for the different 
branches, the gain coming from the better 
teaching that results from the adaptation of 
the teacher to the work for which he is best 
fitted and for which he has made special prep- 
aration. When an instructor teaches allied 
subjects he is able to specialize and do the work 
well. ^* 

Fourth: The six-year high school curriculum 
is fully consistent with established principles 

"V. E. Kilpatrick, Departmental Teaching in Elementary 
Schools, Macmillan Co. (An excellent work.) 

"Proceedings, National Education Association, 1908, p. 
626. 



32 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 

of genetic pedagogy and psychology. The six- 
year elementary school may be completed and 
the pupils may be ready to enter the Intro- 
ductory high school when they are about twelve 
or thirteen years of age. This period is recog- 
nized by distinguished psychologists as the be- 
ginning of adolescence, and the beginning of 
adolescence, many authorities maintain, should 
be the beginning of secondary education. As 
pointed out in the first chapter, adolescence de- 
mands, according to genetic psychology, that 
new matter and new methods must be intro- 
duced. This is precisely the view held by Dr. 
Hall, for he contends that **we must take 
account of the nature of the great upheaval at 
the dawn of the teens, which marks the pubes- 
cent ferment, and which requires distinct 
change in matter and method of education. . . . 
It is a period of very rapid if not fulminating 
psychic expansion. . . . The drill to which they 
have been subjected before pubescence becomes 
irksome when they reach this crisis.'' And 
speaking specifically of the new six-year plan, 
he says: **It would bring about the change of 



SIX-YEAR HIGH SCHOOL CURRICULA 33 

external conditions whicli always ongM to 
mark the great change within, that takes place 
at the dawn of pubescent years, which our sys- 
tem now, instead of stressing as the world — 
savage and civilized — ^has everywhere done, 
tends to obliterate. Mankind, throughout all 
its history, has marked the faint dawn of 
sexual maturity by initiations, training in new 
modes of life, confirmation, etc., as befits the 
nature and needs of this stage of evolution.^'* 
Children are now approaching maturity, and 
are impressed in a very new and strange way 
by the lives of those older than themselves, 
and by adults, and it is just this association 
and spur that the present system cuts off, for 
the boy in the upper grammar grades has no 
higher classmates to admire and imitate. These 
two evils, namely, the obliteration of pubes- 
cence, and the elimination of the influence of 
those older, are very real and very grave evils 
in our system which must be remedied, if we 
are to work with, and not against nature." **I 
am fully convinced," says the same authority, 

" Educational Problems, Vol. II, p. 648. 



34 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 

speaking further of the six-year high school, 
''that the interests of both community and 
child demand some such extension downward, 
and also that it is inevitable. Of course, it 
would involve some additional expense to bring 
boys of twelve under more male teachers, and 
would require larger appropriations, but, as it 
is needed, this change must come. ' ' " 

There seems to be an increasing demand 
throughout the country for courses of study 
similar to those that follow: 

"Educational Problems, VoL II, p. 648. 



SIX-YEAB HIGH SCHOOL CURBICULA 35 



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CHAPTER m 

PRINCIPLE OF ELECTION IN EDUCATION 

The fact that some of the greatest colleges 
and universities of this country recognize the 
limited elective system of high school studies 
for admission shows that there is a strong 
tendency in that direction. ^ Two of the most 
progressive institutions to adopt this policy 
recently are Reed College, founded in 1912 at 
Portland, Oregon, and the University of 
Chicago, which changed in 1911 its require- 
ments for admission and graduation. ^ 

*It seems to me ttiat the State College of Washington 
and the University of Chicago have approximated the ideal 
in regard to admission requirements, while Reed College 
and Stanford University have approximated the ideal with 
reference to requirements for graduation. 

' Some excellent papers have been written on the new 
requirements at the University of Chicago. See articles by 
0. H. Judd (Education, Jan., 1912, Vol. XXXII, No. 5, pp. 
266-277), O. R. Mann (Educational Review, Sept., 1911, Vol. 

39 



40 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 

One of the first institntions of higher learn- 
ing that not merely formulated the elective 
system in theory but put it into actual opera- 
tion, was Stanford University. I quote these 
words from the Stanford catalogue: **No pre- 
scription other than English will be made/' 
The catalogue here refers to the entrance re- 
quirements of the University. 

President Emeritus David Starr Jordan in 
his admirable book entitled, **The Care and 
Culture of Men,'' maintains that **we must let 
the student have, to a great extent, his own 
way as to what his studies shall be. We can 
see that he does his work well, and we can help 
him in many ways, but the direction of his 
efforts must in the end rest with him." 

Many of the most progressive school men to- 
day contend that as soon as the common 
branches are mastered each student should be 
given the privilege of selecting his own studies, 
but not without careful advice and direction by 
parents and teachers. It is worse than useless, 

XLII, No. 2, pp. 186-191), J. R. AngeU (School Review, 
Sept., 1911, Vol. XIX, No. 7, pp, 489-497). 



PRINCIPLE OF ELECTION IN EDUCATION 41 

it is claimed, to try to change the course of a 
student's life by compelling him to do work 
iwhich he knows will only be of little use to 
him. 

High school authorities everywhere are be- 
ginning to recognize the truth of the statement 
made by the Committee of Nine of the 1911 
National Education Association concerning the 
most effective way of securing good work. The 
Committee maintained that the school must take 
into account individual differences and must 
emphasize interest rather than difficulty as a 
stimulant to the student. 

Many leading educators have long held this 
yiew. Dr. Bolton has always maintained that 
interest is of pre-eminent and fundamental 
importance, ^ and Dr. Suzzallo seems to be of 
the same opinion, for he says: *'Too many of 
the able and willing of mind are only half en- 
grossed with their school tasks . . . and we find 
that many children, whom we have considered 

-See Dean F. E. Bolton's discussion of "Interest and 
Education" in his Principles of Education. Charles Scrib- 
ner's Sons, 1910. 



42 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 

backward or perverse, are merely bored by tlie 
unappealing tasks and formalities of school 
life. The major difficulty with our schools is 
that they have not adequately enlisted the in- 
terests and energies of children in school 
work.''* 

Most authorities would give the student con- 
siderable freedom in selecting his studies dur- 
ing later adolescence. Dr. C. W. Eliot, whose 
work in forwarding the ** elective system'' in 
education cannot be estimated, says : * * The saf- 
est guides to a wise choice will be the taste, 
inclination and special capacity of each indi- 
vidual. ... It is only the individual youth who 
can select that course of study which will most 
profit him, because it will most interest him. 
The very fact of choice goes far to secure the 
co-operation of his will. It is for the happi- 
ness of the individual and the benefit of society 
alike that these mental diversities should be 
cultivated, not suppressed. The individual en- 

• See the editor's introduction to John Dewey's monograph 
"Interest and Effort in Education." Houghton, MiflOin Co., 
N. Y. 



PRINCIPLE OF ELECTION IN EDUCATION 43 

joys most that intellectual labor for wMch lie 
is most fit; and society is best served when 
every man's peculiar sMll, faculty, or aptitude 
is developed and utilized to the highest possible 
degree."^ 

Dr. Eliot thinks our courses of study should 
be flexible for the younger as well as the older 
students. He holds that '* every individual 
child's peculiar gifts and powers, should be 
discovered early and developed and trained 
assiduously. . . . There should be some choice 
of subjects of study by ten years of age, and 
much variety by fifteen years of age." Many 
would agree with him when he says that there 
should be much variety by fifteen years of age 
but very few, I think, believe that there should 
be any choice of subjects by ten years of age. 
And again does he not go to the extreme when 
he asserts that '*in the ideal democratic school 
no two children would follow the same course 
of study or have the same tasks, except that 
they would all need to learn the use of the 

"C. W. EUot, Educational Reform, pp, 134-136, The Cen- 
tury Company, N. Y., 1901. 



M EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 

elementary tools of education : reading, writing 
and ciphering/'^ 

The principle of election has reached all 
classes in the ** General High Schools'* in Bos- 
ton, and other cities are rapidly adopting the 
plan. The reason for this, undoubtedly, is the 
'* growing diversity of knowledge," the break- 
ing down of the **old ideal of the scholar,'' the 
**need of specialization," the necessity of civic, 
moral, hygienic and vocational instruction and 
training, and the *^ opening of educational op- 
portunities to all the people." 

In the Boise, Idaho, High School, all studies, 
except English are elective. ^ * The students are 
aided in selecting a imified course in accordance 
with their needs." ^ In Boston in all the *^ Gen- 
eral High Schools" the only required studies 
are English, Hygiene and Physical Training. 
Eecently, a year of science has been added to 
the list of constants. 

More than one-half of the studies of the 



•C. W. Eliot, Educational Reform, p. 262, and pp. 408-10. 
' See Stout, The High School, p. 312, D. O. Heath & Co., 
1914. 



PRINCIPLE OF ELECTION IN EDUCATION 45 

'* General Course" of the Seattle High Schools 
are elective. The required studies are English 
(3 years), mathematics (1 year), history and 
civics (2 years) and laboratory science (1 year). 
The rest of the studies (16 credits) are elective. 
Each pupil must, however, earn six credits (3 
years) in one subject other than English. This 
is an excellent course for the purpose for which 
it is designed. It is meant for all who *'have 
not reached a decision as to their future." 

It might be added that although this course 
is not intended to prepare students for college, 
many upon the completion of it would be al^ 
lowed to enter Stanford University or the Uni- 
versity of Chicago, two of the best institutions 
in the United States. Both belong to the 
Assocation of American Universities. English 
is the only required study for admission to 
Stanford. The University of Chicago demands 
three years' work in English, a major of three 
years and a minor of two years in any of the 
standard high school subjects. I quote from 
Dr. J. E. AngelPs article, *^New Eequirements 
for Entrance and Graduation at the Universitj^ 



46 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 

of Chicago'' (School Eeview, Sept., 1911, page 
493): ** English is the only subject definitely, 
required of all candidates for entrance to the 
University. Apart from this, the two most 
essential demands are : first, the presentation of 
two groups of subjects, of which at least three 
imits shall be offered in one and at least two 
units in the other ; and, second, the requirement 
that at least ten of the fifteen units offered shall 
be the familiar academic subjects/' 

Some educators favor the elective principle 
for colleges but not for high schools. They 
talk of * laying a good foundation." Accord- 
ing to Dr. Jordan, ^*we have tried, as we used 
to say, to make well rounded men, men who 
stand four-square to every wind that blows." 
But he says, ^^This is a training better fitted 
for hitching-posts or windmills than for men." ® 

Often the very people who speak of *4aying 
a good foundation" are also enthusiastic ad- 
vocates of ** thorough mental discipline" for 
each student so that wheti he receives his di- 

• D. S. Jordan, Care and Culture of Men, p. 163, Whitaker 
& Ray Co., 1903. 



PRESrCIPLE OF ELECTION IN EDUCATION 47 

ploma, leaves the school, and goes ''out in the 
world,'' lie will be prepared to cope with any 
situation, and the best and only way, they say, 
* * to train the mind, ' ' for this purpose, is to study 
the foreign languages and higher mathematics. 
But is this argument sound? Do not the studies 
that have a more direct bearing on the conduct 
and problems of life *Hrain the mind" quite as 
well, if not better than the languages and mathe- 
matics? 

We have good authority to answer the last 
question in the affirmative, for Herbert Spencer 
contends that knowledge that is best for life 
is also best for development of power® and I 
am sure that G. Stanley Hall would also sup- 
port my contention, for he maintains that the 
''very existence of any such thing'' as a ''gen- 
eralized type of ability or general culture" is 
"now disputed by psychologists." Then he 
says emphatically: "The power which is trained 
for efficiency in one direction cannot be applied 

"See Spencer's Education, p. 74, D. Appleton Co., N. T. 
Also see Graves, Great Educators of Three Centuries, pp. 
878-279, MacmiUan Co., N. Y., 1912. 



48 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 

in any otlier witlioiit very great abatement and 
loss, if indeed it can be at all. ' ' ^° 

If the positions held by Herbert Spencer and 
G. Stanley Hall be correct, and if Professor 
Home's contention" that mental discipline 
gained in one field will aid in another just in so 
far as the two subjects are similar, be sound, 
ought not the pupil study subjects in which he 
has a genuine interest or work that will be of 
more use to him in later life instead of being 
forced to take Latin, advanced algebra" or 
solid geometry?" Should not the student be 
allowed to select, with assistance, studies in 
harmony with his nature, interests, capacities, 
needs and aims in life ? But some contend that 
many high school students are not greatly in- 
terested in anything in the curriculum and do 
not know their needs" and aims in life. Al- 

" Educational Problems, Vol. II, p. 653. D. Appleton Co. 

"H. H. Home, Psychological Principles of Education, 
p. 71, Macmillian Co., N. Y., 1907. 

" See Dr. M. V. C Shea's Editorial Comments in the May, 
(1916), issue of the Wisconsin Journal of Education. 

"See David Snedden's article, "What of Liberal Educa- 
tion." Atlantic Monthly, Jan., 1912, Vol. CIX, pp. 111-117. 

"Dr. E. O. Holland maintains that "the schoolmaster 



PRINCIPLE OF ELECTION IN EDUCATION 49 

though this situation presents a difficult prob- 
lem, could not the secondary school do much 
more than it is now doing for this class of 
students? If a student does not know his 
dominant interests, capabilities and needs, the 
teachers should endeavor to discover them, and 
I believe this could be done by means of short 
general courses in various subjects. 

After discussing this problem from every 
possible standpoint at the meeting of the N. E. 
A. in 1911, it was the consensus of opinion of 
the committee on secondary education that **the 
high school period is the testing time, the time 
for trying out different powers, the time for 
forming life purposes. . . .'' Further, the com- 
mittee maintained that ''in high school the boy 
or girl may very properly make a start along 

must go out into the industrial life of a community and 
learn at first hand what is expected of the young people 
when they leave the school. Then he must have sufficient 
courage and initiative to do two things: first, make such 
changes in the course of study as will give better prepara- 
tion to the children who must enter the vocations at an 
early age; and, second, make possible for any child to 
continue uninterruptedly his course through the grades, 
the high school, and the university." (Proc. N. E. A., 1913, 
pp. 711-712). 



60 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 

tte line of his chosen vocation, but final choice 
should not be forced upon him at the beginning 
of that career. If he makes a provisional choice 
early in the course there should be ample op- 
portunity for adjustment later in the high 
school."^' 

In a classic on election in education we find 
these words: **At every turn the elective sys- 
tem has met a * stone wall of conservatism.' 
For one educated under the old prescribed 
regime and indoctrined with the venerable idea 
of what constitutes a liberal education, it is dif- 
ficult to eliminate the personal equation. . . . 
Scholars cling naturally to old ideas, old ideals, 
old methods; no body of men is more averse 
to change. In business such men fail, driven 
to the wall by competition with those who are 
ready to adopt new methods. But education 
fosters conservatism; as a rule, men prefer to 
teach the things they were taught, and to teach 
them in the same way. So the mistakes of 
fathers are visited upon children and upon 

»Proc. N. E. A., 1911, p. 560. 



PRINCIPLE OF ELECTION IN EDUCATION 51 

children's children unto how many generations 
only the history of education can tell.'' 

Someone has said that the opponents of the 
elective system free its advocates from the need 
of any discussion of relative value of studies; 
the reason is plain — ^the final incontestable rea- 
son why no high school studies can be sensibly 
prescribed for all — ^the opponents of free choice 
are utterly unable to agree among themselves 
as to what the prescribed subjects should be. 
There is much truth in this argument, but it is 
not as forceful to-day as it was a decade ago, 
for educators are beginning to agree on at least 
three studies that ought to be required. These 
are discussed in the following chapters. 

Prior to 1910 I examined the catalogues of 
nearly all of the colleges and universities in 
the Northwest, and no two agreed as to the 
required work for entrance to the Freshman 
class in the B. A. course. So we can readily 
see that it depends on the individual or group 
of individuals, who make the lists of required 
studies — ^it depends absolutely upon what they 



52 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 

consider important and positively necessary 
for a * * good foundation. ' ' 

An authority writing on the subject asks this 
question: **When there are not a half-dozen 
high schools in the entire country, under 
separate management, with identical courses of 
study, is it not preposterous to maintain that 
there is a vital, fixed interrelation and one 
natural sequence of subjects!" One group of 
educators says : * ^ So in a program, much should 
be insisted on," and they insist on one program. 
Another says : ** All studies should be required/* 
and they insist on another program. 

So much for prescription of courses. Let us 
speak now of the positive advantages of the 
elective system. In the first place, the elective 
plan will attract more grammar school grad- 
uates to the high school and it will hold them 
in school longer than if the courses were 
prescribed. This is something that is ardently 
to be desired for the percentage of population 
that secure a high school education should be 
increased. 

A recent report of the United States Com- 



PRINCIPLE OF ELECTION IN EDUCATION 53 

missioner of Education shows that about seven 
per cent of the students of the country are in 
secondary schools. Just think of it, only seven 
per cent! Surely something should be done to 
attract more eighth grade graduates to the high 
schools of our country. This can be done by 
introducing the elective system into high schools 
and to prove this statement let us refer to the 
high school at Galesburg, Illinois. 

* * Two years after the introduction of the new 
system, the school building had to be more than 
doubled to accommodate the applicants for ad- 
mission. Formerly one pupil out of eleven in 
the lower grades entered the high school, two 
years later, one out of five entered high school." 
Many of the students would not have continued 
in school had they not been permitted to elect a 
course which seemed to them suited to their 
needs. " 

*'If we should admit tJiat the studies that 
these pupils selected did not do them as much 

"See the History of the Galesburg Schools. In this 
work the author, Dr. Steele, who is superintendent, shows 
definitely and conclusively that the elective system increases 
attendance. 



54 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 

good as some that might have been prescribed, 
yet it must be conceded that these elective 
studies did them more good than remaining out 
of school entirely would have done.'' 

Moreover, the elective plan has a good effect 
on teachers. It gets students and teachers to- 
gether who are vitally interested in the same 
subject. In this way a teacher can see the 
effect of his work. It also gives the scEool a! 
chance to rid itself of inefficient teachers. Under 
the prescribed plan pupils are forced to go to 
teachers who are not interesting — ^teachers who 
are teachers only in name — and often are in- 
tolerant, sluggish and unprogressive. The 
elective system tends to force such persons to 
become better teachers or leave the profession. 

We are now going to introduce an argument 
which seems to be most essential. It is this: 
The elective system arouses the interest and 
willingness of the student and fills him with en- 
thusiasm to do better work. It also makes him 
feel his responsibility as no other system can 
do. If a person selects a certain study because 
he likes the subject and the teacher, he studies 



PRINCIPLE OF ELECTION IN EDUCATION 55 

harder and he desires to learn more than if 
that study were prescribed. Furthermore, the 
elective plan makes the student conscious of 
what he is doing, trains him in independent 
choice, and in this way makes him feel his own 
individual responsibility. 

The stock argument of the opponents of the 
elective system, is that there are some students 
who, from pure laziness, select only the easiest 
studies and go through school with the very 
easiest work possible. **But this is no new 
thing, and it is not for such students that the 
school exists. The school should not obstruct 
the work of its earnest students to keep its 
idlers and sneaks from wasting their useless 
time.'' As Dr. Angell has said: **No plan will 
make the school career of lazy students bril- 
liant. The work should be organized to meet 
the needs of the earnest and aspiring, rather 
than the infirmities and defects of the indolent." 

But, Dr. Jordan contends that most students, 
as a matter of fact do not select the easiest 
studies, as statistics certainly show. He says 
further, **It is simple nonsense to call any 



56 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 

study easy, if pursued in a serious manner for 
a serious purpose. If any subject draws to it- 
self the idlers solely because it is easy, tbe fault 
lies with the teacher. The success of the elec- 
tive system, as of any other system, demands 
the removal of inefficient teachers. The elective 
system can never wholly succeed unless each 
teacher has the power and the will to enforce 
good work or to remove from his classes all 
idle or inefficient students. The average course, 
however, as chosen by the students themselves, 
is as capable of serious defense as the average 
established course evolved from the pulling and 
hauling and patching and fitting of the average 
faculty.'^" 

Dr. C. W. Eliot asks this pertinent question : 
**What becomes of the careless, indifferent, 
lazy boys who have no bent or ambition of any 
sort?'' and answers it by saying: **What be- 
comes of such boys under the uniform com- 
pulsory system?. . . It really does not make 
much difference what these unawakened minds 

" Dr. C. W. Eliot is of the same opinion. See his Educa- 
tional Reform, p. 138. Century Co., New York, 1901. 



PRINCIPLE OF ELECTION IN EDUCATION 57 

dawdle with. There is, however, much more 
chance that such young men will get roused 
from their lethargy under an elective system 
than under a required. " " 

**But you may say: * Would you let a student 
graduate ignorant of Chemistry, of LatiQ, of 
Logic, of Botany?' " **Well, yes," says Dr. 
Jordan, *'if superficiality in everything is the 
alternative. It is well for a scholar to know 
something of each of these and of each of the 
subjects in the most extended curriculum. But 
he purchases this knowledge too dearly if he 
buys it at the expense of thoroughness in some 
line of study in which a real interest has been 
awakened.'' 

Although those who advocate the almost 
purely elective system seem to be able to meet 
the arguments of their opponents, nevertheless, 
it seems to me, it is not a question of '*free 
election" or absolute ** prescription," but it is 
rather what studies should be chosen by each 
student, for to-day it is recognized that each 
person needs an education fitted to his indi- 

"Educational Keform, p. 140, 



58 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESENCE 

vidual needs. If any studies should be pre- 
scribed, should they not be in the field of the 
humanities, rather than in the field of mathe- 
matics and the classics? For instance, does it 
not seem reasonable that all students should 
be required to study, besides English, some of 
the essential facts of the history of the world 
from the earliest times to the present, and be- 
sides, would it not be desirable to advise all 
to study at least the elementary problems in 
ethics, civics, hygiene, sociology, economics, and 
psychology? 



i/ 



CHAPTEB IV; 

CHANGES PROPOSED IN SECONDARY EDUCATION 

By an examination of some of the most pro- 
gressive high schools of the United States, we 
find that there is a tendency to provide not 
merely for the vocational needs of their stu- 
dents, but also for the civic, social and cultural 
needs as well. And it is right that it should 
be thus, for the aim of the modern high school 
should be to provide instruction tending to 
produce cultured, self-supporting, self-respect- 
ing, efficient members of society. 

But how is this to be done? Partly by a wise 
selection of subject matter. Then the question 
arises: What studies should be prescribed for 
all students. The answer must be, the studies 
that are recognized as supremely useful to all. 
But what are the specific studies? 

59 



60 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 

Constants 

The required subjects should be English, 
some phases of the history of civilization, and 
modern civic and social problems, and the 

Electives 

i.e., the rest of the studies, will depend absolutely 
upon the student's aptitudes, interests, needs 
and aims in life. For instance, if the student 
is reasonably sure that he will go to college, 
normal, or technical school, his electives should 
be chosen with this particular aim clearly in 
view. If the student intends to go into busi- 
ness, he should take the commercial course. If 
he wishes to learn a trade, of course he will 
select industrial subjects, and take some of his 
work in a factory or in a shop as provided for 
by the part-time schools. ^ If he does not know 
what course to enter, the teachers should try 
to discover the student's dominant interests 

»The Fitchburg Plan. See H. Schneider, Partial Time 
Trade Schools, Annals of Am. Acad, of Pol. & S.S., 1909, 
Volume XXXIII, pp. 50-55. See also J. S. Taylor, Handbook 
of Vocational Education, Macmillan Co., N. Y., 1914. 



CHANGES IN SECONDARY EDUCATION 61 

and capabilities by means of short courses in 
yarious subjects. 

Altbougb not exclusively, a large part of the 
school time should be devoted to vocational 
education or in discovering vocational aptitudes. 
The vocational instruction, however, will not 
crowd out the so-called cultural subjects. The 
instruction will be both cultural and vocational. 
But this is not all. It will develop social effi- 
ciency. It will help all to be better citizens and 
will aid each individual to enjoy life irrespec- 
tive of vocation. 

In the ideal high school the pupils, parents, 
and teachers working together will select the 
student's program. This is now done in 
Boston and Seattle. There is no uniform 
** course" for all individuals, but each student's 
nature, interests, and plans for the future are 
fully recognized and the studies are selected 
with these things in mind. The aim is to de- 
velop the pupil's interests and aptitudes. The 
largest liberty of choice is given to each student. 
The teachers and parents advise, the students 
choose, and the flexibility of the course makes 



62 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 

it possible for every individual, no matter what 
his talent may be, to receive the proper educa- 
tion and culture. 

The *^ General High Schools'' of Boston and 
the general courses of the Seattle High Schools 
are especially adapted to the nature and needs 
of adolescents. Aside from a very few re- 
quired studies, each student 's program depends 
solely upon his dominant interests and capaci- 
ties. The characteristic features are (1) the 
limited elective system and (2) the flexibility 
of the courses of study. The required studies — 
English, Civics, and History — give some of the 
knowledge and training every American citizen 
should receive, while the electives give each in- 
dividual an opportunity to discover and de- 
velop his dominant interests, which simply 
means each student has an opportunity to stress 
the subjects that will be of use later and to 
study problems closely related to our social, 
civic, and industrial life. The program is 
entirely flexible and offers numerous oppor- 
tunities for a change of course as a student's 
inclinations are modified or his tendencies are 



CHANGES IN SECONDARY EDUCATION 63 

developed. Thus the individual is not made to 
fit the education, but the education is made to 
fit the individual. 

Electives and Constants 

It devolves upon the modern high school to 
teach not merely those subjects that give ^^ cul- 
ture" but it must give, as the Fitchburg schools 
do, instruction that will lead the student to be- 
come a self-supporting citizen in the com- 
munity. 

Appropriate vocational training wiU be pro- 
vided to meet the capacities, interests and needs 
of aU classes of students. Aside from the re- 
quired studies — English, the history of civiliza- 
tion, and civic and social problems — all work 
will depend absolutely upon the individual 
student's natural aptitudes, capacities, inter- 
ests, needs and aims in life. His interests and 
capacities will, of course, largely determine his 
needs or aims in life. 

There are, it is true, many pupils in the high 
school who are in the finding process, and who 



m EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 

do not need or wish to select their future work. 
It is highly desirable that there be provider' the 
best possible instruction in subjects that are 
likely to find the widest range of application 
in adult life. The vocational instruction and 
the elective studies together serve an excellent 
purpose in enabling the student to discover his 
tastes, ability, interests and in this way he is 
able to *'fiiid himself." 

In having different courses for different 
students as many high schools have, it is recog- 
nized that what the Committee of Nine of the 
[National Education Association in 1911 said is 
true, that *^hard work is to be secured not by 
insistence upon uniformity of tastes and in- 
terests, but by the encouragement of special 
effort along lines that appeal to the individ- 
ual.''^ Dr. W. H. Burnham says that **the 
child's mind can no more give attention to the 
absolutely uninteresting than the eye can per- 
ceive the ultra-violet rays of the spectrum." 

The work of the high school should be spent 
mostly in developing dominant interests and 

»Proc. N. E. A., 1911, p. 560. 



CHANGES IN SECONDARY EDUCATION 65 

shonld stress instruction tending^toward the 
professional, industrial, business, or agricul- 
tural career in which the student is most in- 
terested. But the high school has another dis- 
tinct function aside from the vocational. It 
must be deeply concerned not only in prepar- 
ing for a vocation, but it must do its best to give 
some general culture and prepare for efficient 
citizenship. 

It is scarcely necessary to give the reasons 
why all should study English, for I know of no 
first-class high school anywhere that does not 
require at least two or three years of every 
student who is to graduate. And when I men- 
tioned on page 60 that history too should be 
required of all I was not stating a new view, 
for this study is already prescribed in the 
great majority of high schools throughout the 
country.^ 

Although the study of modern civic and social 
problems is not a required subject in every 
secondary school, some of the most progressive 

•For justification of prescribing history we refer to 
Cliapter VII of this book. 



66 EDUCATION DUMNG ADOLESCENCE 

educators to-day think it should be. President 
Nicholas M. Butler of Columbia University, 
says: **The public education of a great demo- 
cratic people has other aims to fulfill than the 
extension of scientific knowledge or the develop- 
ment of literary culture. It must prepare for 
intelligent citizenship.'* He says further, "We 
can leave questions as to the undulatory theory 
of light and as to Grimm's and Verner^s laws to 
the specialist, but we may not do the same with 
questions as to production and exchange, as to 
monetary policy and taxation. The course of 
study is not liberal, in this country, that does 
not recognize these facts and emphasize eco- 
nomics as it deserves." 

We should bear in mind that most students 
who enter high school never go to college, but 
within a few years become voters and have all 
the responsibilities of citizenship to discharge. 
In view of these facts, it is essential that the 
students should be required to study practical 
problems pertaining to society and government. 
They may not make great progress in the study 
of modern problems, but a little knowledge may 



CHANGES IN SECONDARY EDUCATION 67 

stinmlate them to acquire more, and it will cer- 
tainly give tliem a deeper interest in the wel- 
fare of their country and the well-being of their 
fellow citizens. 

American statesmen always have in the past 
urged what many sociologists and educators 
are to-day vigorously contending, that because 
of our form of government, the people must 
have knowledge concerning political affairs. 
This contention is sound at present even more 
so than it was in the past because of the wide- 
spread adoption of the ** Initiative and Eefer- 
endum. ' ' Direct legislation by the people needs 
not only more political, but social and economic 
knowledge. 

If the people become legislators or law-makers 
as they do under the Initiative and Referendum, 
they must be enlightened in the practical 
present-day problems pertaining to just legisla- 
tion. It is absurd to think that it is possible to 
give an intelligent decision upon the laws that 
come before the people without social, political, 
and economic knowledge. 

In answer to this contention some maintain 



68 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 

that tlie Initiative and Referendum may not be 
adopted in all the states. But even if this should 
be the case, the argument is still forceful, as 
these devices of government are already in full 
operation in nearly all municipalities through- 
out the country. Furthermore, such kaowledge 
is needed to know whether or not the platforms 
of the various political parties are just, reason- 
able and otherwise desirable. 

In order for the student **to work" as Dr. 
Hanus says, **for the continuous improvement 
and happiness of his race, his nation, and his 
own immediate community" the student must 
have social knowledge ; he must have knowledge 
concerning the actual conditions, he must study 
the evils as well as the proposed remedies, and 
these are some of the reasons why all should 
study the social sciences. 

We sincerely hope it will not be long before 
the high schools everywhere will follow the ex- 
ample of some of the secondary schools of the 
Middle West which lay great stress on, not only 
civic and social instruction, but on English 
literature and English expression, and the 



CHANGES IN SECONDARY EDUCATION 69 

history of civilization. TMs is ardently to be 
desired, for an education must not only help to 
make the individual self-supporting, but it must 
give culture and prepare the student for social 
service, and besides, it ought to train, as Dr. 
Eliot says, **some permanent capacity for 
productiveness or enjoyment and aid in the 
development of character." 

Some attention could be devoted to civic and 
social questions along with the course in his- 
tory, but perhaps to a greater extent could they 
be emphasized in connection with the course in 
English literature and English expression. In- 
stead of reading all of the '* English Classics" 
now required, some books might be studied 
dealing with the questions just mentioned. The 
students in their English course might, for ex- 
ample, study Towne's Social Problems or Ell- 
wood's Sociology and Modern Social Problems. 
Many books are appearing now like these which 
deal with current problems in a practical and 
interesting manner. Such work would vitalize 
the high school English course, and in addition 
it would give the students yaliiable information. 



70 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 

Since physical training is not one of the 
formal studies, we did not include it in the 
small group of constants. Nevertheless, we 
believe it is extremely important for all, and 
should be ^'fostered not merely by gymnastic 
exercises and lectures on hygiene, but by a face 
to face study of, and experience with, the con- 
ditions of wholesome living, ' ' * and this is more 
important than any one or all of the studies 
mentioned as required, for **the acquisition of 
knowledge may be deferred, but the demands 
of physical development cannot wait." This 
is in harmony with common sense and an 
eminent authority^ who states further that 
** among the habits distinctly conducive to 
health must be reckoned active interests in 
nature, in outdoor sports, in varied forms of 
artistic activity, in social life, and social in- 
stitutions. ' ' 

Of course, we realize that in all knowledge 

* David Snedden. 

'This view is held by President Hall's most intimate 
collaborator, Dr. W. H. Burnham, in whom America has 
a brilliant exponent of scientific mental hygiene. See his 
contributions in Monroe's Cyclopedia of Education. Also 
School Review, Dec, 1897, pp. 652-666. 



CHANGES IN SECONDARY EDUCATION 71 

there is profit, and tlie wider the student's 
learning the better prepared he will be to do 
his best work, and that while the student must 
consider first his actual and immediate voca- 
tional needs, we should never lose sight of the 
fact that he should strive to secure some general 
culture, and become as nearly as possible so- 
cially efficient. However, we should bear in 
mind that the course of study will fulfill these 
aims but imperfectly and that other knowledge 
and other culture are desirable, not only in a 
general way but also as bearing directly upon 
Ms success in life. 

Intelligent people everywhere recognize the 
importance of personal culture and social effi- 
ciency, but how are they to be attained? In 
nearly every important meeting of high school 
men this question is discussed: What studies 
are best for these purposes? May the student 
become cultured and socially efficient by study- 
ing the foreign languages and mathematics, or 
by receiving instruction in the branches having 
a direct bearing on the conduct and problems 
of life? Neither, it is generally conceded will 



72 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 

necessarily make a person cultured and socially 
efficient, but according to a large and increas- 
ing number of eminent authorities, literature, 
history, and modern civic and social problems 
are undoubtedly some of the chief sources. 

While the classics, other foreign languages, 
and mathematics may be important to some 
students for some purposes, personal culture 
and social efficiency (which mil, broadly speak- 
ing, contribute, both directly and indirectly, to 
the individual's vocational efficiency) may be 
promoted better by developing a permanent in- 
terest in reading the best literature and in 
studying modern civic and social problems and 
the essential facts of the history of civilization. 

Dr. Chas. W. Eliot, who for forty years was 
President of Harvard University, in his 
monograph entitled Education for Efficiency 
and The New Definition of the Cultivated Man, 
after speaking of the increased importance of 
character and the power of literary apprecia- 
tion and expression says: **The next great ele- 
ment in cultivation ... is acquaintance with 
some part of the store of knowledge which hu- 



CHANGES IN SECONDjiHY EDUCATION 73 

manity in its progress from barbarism has 
acquired and laid np. This is the prodigous 
store of recorded, rationalized, and systema- 
tized discoveries, experiences, and ideas. . . . 
It is too vast for any man to master, thongh 
he had a hundred lives instead of one; and its 
growth in the nineteenth century was greater 
than in all the thirty preceding centuries put 
together. In the eighteenth century a diligent 
student with quick powers of apprehension and 
a strong memory need not have despaired of 
mastering a large fraction of this store of 
kaowledge. Long before the end of the nine- 
teenth century such a task had become impos- 
sible. Culture, therefore, can no longer imply 
a knowledge of everything — ^not even a little 
knowledge of everything. It must be content 
with general knowledge of some things, and a 
real mastery of some small portion of the hu- 
man store. Here is a profound modification of 
the idea of cultivation which the nineteenth 
century has brought about." 

Dr. Eliot then asks this question: '*What 
portion or portions of the infinite human storQ 



74 EDTTCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 

are most proper to the cultivated manT' and 
answers it by saying: ** Those which enable him, 
with his individual personal qualities to deal 
best and sympathize most with nature and with 
other human beings. It is here that the pas- 
sion for service must fuse with the passion for 
knowledge.'' 

Now does it not seem almost self evident that 
the student who has acquainted himself with 
English literature, the history of civilization, 
and practical problems in civics, economics and 
sociology, **has a better chance of fusing the 
passion for knowledge with the passion for do- 
ing good'' than the student who has neglected 
these studies? 

From the standpoint of social service, the 
study of these branches equips the student, as 
nothing else can, academically, for an active, 
useful, earnest and profitable life, and anything 
like a mastery of these studies brings with it 
a high degree of culture, according to the defi- 
nition formulated by Dr. Eliot. 

To sum up: If a student expects to enter a 
profession he should take studies bearing in 



CHANGES IN SECONDARY EDUCATION 75 

some way on that particular profession, but ill 
addition lie should study English literature and 
expression, some phases of the history of civil- 
ization, and at least a few practical problems 
in sociology and government. 

If the student is interested in agriculture and 
intends to become a farmer obviously he should 
take the agricultural course. But although he 
intends to be a farmer he must assume the 
' duties of citizenship, and herein lies the reason 
for studying the subjects I have just mentioned. 

If the student intends to become a merchant 
he should take the business or commercial 
course; but he too should study the subjects 
that are regarded as useful to all, for the 
merchant like the farmer has to discharge the 
duties of citizenship. 

If the student in high school decides to learn 
a trade, of course he will enter one of the in- 
dustrial courses. So we might go on naming 
courses, but the real point is simply this : The 
course for each individual will depend exclu- 
sively upon the student's interests, capabilities, 
needs and aims in life. But no matter what 



76 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 

his interests and capacities are ; no matter wliat 
his needs and aims in life may be; no matter 
what trade or profession he may enter ; no mat- 
ter what vocation he may pursue ; he must be- 
come a self-respecting citizen; he must be 
trained in the work of genuine citizenship ; and 
herein lies the reason for requiring all to study 
English literature and expression, the history 
of civilization, and practical problems in 
sociology and government. 

It is evident that not only social efficiency or 
citizenship, but also general culture demands 
that instruction in these branches be required. 
These subjects have cultural value in them- 
selves and practical worth for life. The reason 
why they should be taught to everybody is be- 
cause they are supremely useful to everybody. 
They will not only contribute to each citizen's 
usefulness but also to each citizen's happiness 
regardless of his probable vocation. These 
studies prove their worth and justify them- 
selves by their fruits. 

Now let us state our general conclusion as 
Concisely as possible. In order to be self-sup- 



CHANGES IN SECONDARY EDUCATION 77 

porting, each individual shonld take studies 
bearing either directly or indirectly on some 
trade, occupation, or profession. But no mat- 
ter what vocation a student is to follow he must 
become a citizen, and should be trained for 
genuine citizenship, which necessitates active 
participation in human affairs, and it is also 
extremely desirable that he should secure some 
** general culture.'' Therefore every pupil, 
sometime during the high school course, should 
be required to pursue three studies and their 
correlates, namely: (1) English literature and 
English expression, (2) the essential facts of 
the history of civilization, and (3) practical 
problems pertaining to society and government. 
Many other studies are desirable, interesting 
and stimulating and what they should be will 
depend solely upon the nature, interests and 
capacities, needs and aims in life of each par- 
ticular student, but the three required courses 
just enumerated are absolutely essential, indis- 
pensable to every cultured, socially efficient 
citizen. The three studies were selected first, 
with reference to the knowledge they will give ; 



78 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 

and second, with reference to social efficiency, 
and the value of the culture their mastery will 
bring. The constants will help to make the 
student socially efficient and ** self-respecting" 
while the electives will give the student a 
chance to **find himself and an opportunity 
to stress vocational training if he so desires, 
thus helping him to become vocationally efficient 
and therefore ** self-supporting." 



CHAPTER V 

REQUIRED SUBJECTS: THE SOCIAL STUDIES 

The study of practical problems pertaining 
to society^ and government will not only tend 
to make one cultured, but will tend to make 
one socially efficient. We admit that in all 
knowledge there is some culture, but the culture 
obtained in studying modern problems relating 
to politics and sociology is of a kind which noth- 
ing else can claim to give, while the practical 
use of such a course is by no means small, even 
if we confine the study to the elementary prob- 
lems and measure the value by the strictest of 
utiKtarian rules. Besides, the study of sociology 
and government will help one to get the most 
out of life, not only by contributing to the en- 

^ See G. W. Bate, An Experiment in Teaching a Course in 
Elementary Sociology. School Review, May, 1915. 

79 



80 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 

joyment of leisure, but also by creating both 
the desire and ability to share eifeetively in 
making others better and happier. This study 
will arouse one's interest, and will give one 
insight into our municipal, state, and national 
institutions, our political, industrial, commer- 
cial and educational affairs. If presented in 
the right way, it will help any person to work 
better with his fellowmen for the continuous 
improvement and happiness of his race, his na- 
tion, and his own immediate community. There 
are, then, two important things that work in 
this field will do for the individual: (1) It 
will help him to enjoy life and prepare him 
for duty, and (2) it ^vl[\ give him a desire to 
participate intelligently in the world's work 
and to render genuine social service, and what 
else can the study of society and government 
give that can in any way compare with the 
sincere desire to have even a small share in 
solving some of the problems of civilization? 

Dr. HalP maintains that **the one word now 
written across the very zenith of the educa- 

» Educational Problems, II, 667. 



REQUIRED SUBJECTS: SOCIAL STUDIES 81 

tional skies, higli above all others, is the word 
service. This is coming to be, as it should be, 
the supreme goal of all pedagogic endeavor, 
the standard by which all other values are 
measured. It includes the highest of all duties. 
The individual is an end to himself only that 
and in so far as he may be a means of helping 
his fellow men. ... We serve God best by 
serving mankind. . . . We save our souls most 
surely by saving our fellow beings to the best 
that is possible in this life. ... It is those that 
do most for the race that will shine as the stars 
forever and ever. . . . This, indeed, is the new 
religion of to-day, which lies concealed in the 
old and is now standing forth revealed. The 
hope of this new dispensation is the most preci- 
ous of all the deepest and best aspirations of 
the present, and its progressive realization is 
the purpose of all modern reforms. Its begin- 
ning in this direction in the field of education 
is so full of the hope and promise of better 
things. . . . that we cannot lose heart" in spite 
of ineffective pedagogic agencies for teaching 
practical problems in sociology and govern- 



82 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 

ment. **The civilized world is realizing as 
never before that all who live for themselves 
live in vain. The very best thing the schools 
are now beginning to do is to inculcate some 
knowledge of, and sympathy with, the simple 
duties of civic virtue, which is the prime re- 
quisite of a good social order. But this is a 
hard lesson and must be begun early and taught 
late, in season and out of season. The cause 
of civic righteousness is so vast and all-condi- 
tioning, especially in a democracy, that it often 
makes feeble and untrained minds fanatics who 
discredit the very cause they would advance; 
but we are slowly if surely learning temperance 
and moderation and are finding the broad mid- 
dle way of permanent progress. We are learn- 
ing that, whether in history or romance, the 
names that shine with the fairest and brightest 
light and last longest are those that have done 
most service. The great moments in great lives 
are those when the supreme choice is to be made 
between self and the welfare of others, and 
the best criterion of supreme manhood and 
iwomanhood is when the latter prevails. More 



REQUIRED SUBJECTS: SOCIAL STUDIES 83 

and more enligMened public opinion is coming 
to distinguish between those who live for them- 
selves and those who live and die by the gospel 
of helpfulness. Measured and judged by this 
criterion, many moral values are being trans- 
valued. Some of the great and rich are re- 
vealed as small and mean, while obscure and 
poor lives shine with new glory. Here we have 
the basis for a new order of nobility which all 
may enter by merit. Indeed, without this new 
spirit, knowledge itseK may be a niggardly 
I thing and a more refined form of self-indul- 
gence. It must not be hoarded or stowed away 
in tombs only, but dispensed and brought to 
bear where it will do most good. ^ 

**Many of our rich men are now diligently 
and earnestly seeking new modes of public help- 
fulness and finding new needs. Men and women 
with leisure, strength, and youth are devoting 
themselves to social welfare in numbers and 
with an enthusiasm hitherto unknown, and we 
need not go to France or Japan, where civic 
virtue and patriotism have been deliberately 

•G. S. HaU's Educational Problems, Vol. II, p. 672. 



84 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 

made the only religion of the state, to find a 
large and growing rich literature upon the new 
duties of man to man. We are now happily 
demanding more and better things of the 
family, the school, the state, and the church 
than they are now doing. . . . Public sentiment 
is becoming wiser and better. We are testing 
ourselves as well as our institutions by this 
new touchstone of service. It is the modern 
version of the judgment-day function. Its still 
small voice is now murmuring in the ears of all 
who can hear and it is asking each, *What are 
you doing to help the world, you, here, and now 
to make those you come in contact with better 
and happier? . . .' 

/ **The basis of all education for citizenship 
is to rectify and broaden the group spirit and 
prevent its degeneration, to which the pathology 
of the crowd shows it is so prone. Hoodlumism 
should be set forth and kept down ; social, civic, 
and charitable institutions should be described 
and visited if possible, as is indeed now done 

\ in some places, even with the upper grammar 



REQUIRED SUBJECTS: SOCIAL STUDIES 85 

grades. . . . Muncipal leagues, social service 
movements, junior republics, school and garden 
cities, should be at least told of in the school, 
and boys especially be sympathetically taught 
how their own municipality is governed, and no 
longer leave school, in almost utter ignorance 
of the above things, for the life of the com- 
munity does not go through the school. . . . 
Perhaps stress upon the machinery of govern- 
ment, especially that of the nation, should be 
mainly reserved for the high school, but here 
at the very latest, this instruction should be 
stressed and, if possible, be made the work of 
the best teacher, perhaps the specialty of the 
principal. Here, too, the work of good govern- 
ment clubs, civic leagues, and their national 
federation, the ethics of taxation, the obligation 
and responsibilities of wealth, the duties of the 
ballot, something about public works, epoch- 
making bills, arbitration, conservation, public 
lands, administration, economy, basal principles 
of thrift, personal, domestic, city and national, 
should be emphasized. Indeed, these things 



86 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 

should now be taught with ahnost religious, if 
not Pentecostal fervor.''* 

^*Our schools were established to give an in- 
telligent basis to government of, by and for 
the people, and in civics we are restoring the 
school to its prime original function, the need 
of which has greatly increased by reason of the 
growing complexity of governmental machin- 
ery. ' ' Our voting public is changing continually, 
due to the great forces existing in our modern 
cities. Our boys and girls must be fitted for 
service in this complex life. **The civic move- 
ment would make every school and university 
a solidarity of mutual helpfulness, would arouse 
and capture the very greatest power for good 

* G. S. HaU's Educational Problems, Vol. II, p. 678. 

Nicholas M. Butler, President of Columbia University 
in his book The Meaning of Education, p. 91 (Macmillan 
Co., N. Y., 1904), makes this significant statement: "In a 
democracy at least an education is a failure that does not 
relate itself to the duties and opportunities of citizenship. 
... In society as it exists to-day the dominant note run- 
ning through all of our struggles and problems, is economic, 
what the old Greeks might have caUed political. Yet it 
Is a constant fight to get any proper teaching from the 
economic and social point of view put before high-school 
and college students." 



REQUIRED SUBJECTS: SOCIAL STUDIES 87 

that exists in the world, which is the enthusiasm 
of youth. Civics is a virile subject and appeals 
most to boys and should always be taught by 
public-spirited men. It should re-enlist the in- 
terests of boys at the age when most now leave 
school, in continuing it. Some contend that 
themes of burning present zest should be ex- 
cluded from the school because their lessons 
cannot be given without partisanship; while 
others maintain that both sides of every public 
question might be stated impartially. It has been 
found practical sometimes to have representa- 
tives of both sides present their views to high 
school students. Surely the school cannot be 
a place where nothing of vital present concern 
is taught. Citizenship is the only profession 
which all young men should be trained for. 
Teachers have frequently of late entered the 
arena of politics for their own interests, why 
should they not do so for those of their 
pupils r'^ 

Since social, economic, Etnd political interests 

^ G. S. Hall's Educational Problems, Vol. II, p. 677. 



88 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 

now occupy the center of the stage ^ would the 
state which supports the high school, ask too 
much if it demanded that every high school 
graduate know something of all, if not all of 
any one, of such topics as the referendum, the 
recall of officials, the primaries, the caucus, 
direct nominations, court procedure; delays; 
juries ; free legal as well as medical and religious 
advice for the poor; public utilities and move- 
ments; the tariff, free food, and raw material; 
compulsion by warrants of all able-bodied citi- 
zens to go to the polls to vote; the infamy of 
getting everything possible from, and giving 
nothing to the community ; the expenses of elec- 
tions; gerrymandering versus laying political 
districts by engineers; government by commis- 
sion; taxation, its forms, land, direct, income, 
etc. ; city, home rule ; parcels post, currency and 
banking, trusts, stocks and bonds ; public health, 
hygiene and its legislation, disease, child labor ; 
habeas corpus; a bureau for the purchase 6f 
state supplies; creation of judges; garbage; 
pawn, junk and rag shops; sweating; bill- 

• G. G. HaU's Educational Problems, Vol. II, p. 677. 



REQUIRED SUBJECTS; SOCIAL STUDIES 89 

boards, and disfigurement by posters and 'ads'; 
immigration and its regulation, property and 
contracts; the problems of transportation; 
municipal research, police systems; fire, acci- 
dent, life and other forms of insurance? Here 
we have a list of subjects which might be ex- 
tended indefinitely. Since ignorance of such 
themes makes voting hardly better than il- 
literacy itself, may we not rightly ask: Are 
the high schools giving the hundreds of thou- 
sands of boys under their charge, whose educa- 
tion will go no farther, a square deal if they 
contribute nothing to make them better citizens 
and do not touch this highest domain of ap- 
plied morality? This time of civic awakening 
constitutes a pedagogic opportunity too valu- 
able to be lost. There is a new social conscious- 
ness abroad, the sentiment of which is: each 
for all and all for each. ^ 

**The time will come when every unmarried 
young lady of leisure will be ashamed to devote 
all her time to the vanities of fashionable 
society and selfish amusements, but will feel it 

» G. S. HaU's Educationai Problems, Vol. II, p. 678. 



90 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 

incumbent upon her to do something for others, 
to perhaps be a big sister to some one or more 
young girls who need her ministrations. 
Women's clubs, that now have in this country 
over 700,000 members, will instruct themselves 
in such topics as front door and window garden- 
ing among the poor, better housing, etc. We 
shall have many a 1915 or 1920 movement and 
shall multiply social settlements. Good citizens 
would be ashamed where there are city slums, 
filthy back yards, cesspools or plague spots, 
physical or moral, and will feel it a function 
not only of the boards of trade, but of all busi- 
ness leaders and other concerns to improve the 
civic conditions. The leaders of industry and 
commercial organizations are realizing that if 
a city is to be great in business, it must be great 
civically, as Pittsburg has realized in the no 
less than fourteen new agencies that have been 
established there to this end. This is the new 
standpoint of the citizen of the twentieth cen- 
tury, and intelligent public opinion and expert 
service must carry on the work."^ 

•G. S. HaU's Educational Problems, Vol. II, p. 679. 



REQUIRED SUBJECTS: SOCIAL STUDIES 91 

*' Conscience, current cnstom, and law often 
constitute three very different standards hard 
to harmonize on such problems unless it is pro- 
foundly realized that the public welfare is the 
supreme criterion. ^ ... If we understand how 
most of the evils of our day come, not because 
the people do not mean well and wish the best, 
but because they are densely ignorant and do 
not know it; if we realize that we live in a 
civic renaissance when a new humanity and a 
wider philanthropy are abroad; if we recog- 
nize how flexible men and women must now be 
up to the very end of their lives in order to 
keep up with the times; if we would educate 
the whole boy; then we must not allow him 
to leave the high school uninoculated with at 
least an attenuated culture of such things, 
many if not most of them, and must give him 
a little of the orientation that hints can often 
implant forever at this plastic age. Teachers 
could cull from popular magazines a series of 
inspiring stories of the many cities which in 
recent years have arisen in their might to sweep 

» G. S. HaU's Educational Problems, Vol. II, p. 280. 



92 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 

away abuses, to clean up morally and physically, 
could tell of some of the magnificent concerted 
efforts which some large municipalities have 
made to control and direct their own further 
development along well-considered and unitary 
plans that look toward architectural, transpor- 
tational, aesthetic and ethical harmony by rally- 
ing together of good men."^° 

**The school is the training ship for the ship 
of state and is freighted, like it, with all our 
hopes and fears, and on the fate of one we 
hang no less breathlessly than on the other. It 
is chartered by the people and plies between 
the river of childhood and the open sea of adult 
life. It should not be idly moored in shallow 
waters in some sheltered nook, but hoist anchor, 
spread sail, and boldly venture out where the 
tide and current buffet each other. It should 
teach not mere ship discipline, but the art and 
craft of sailing and this it cannot do without 
braving at least some of the slighter dangers 
of navigation in open seas. If the timorous 
counsels of safeness constitute our only wisdom, 

"G. S. HaU's Educational Problems, Vol. II, p. 681. 



REQUIRED SUBJECTS: SOCIAL STUDIES 93 

then every topic on which there are vital dif- 
ferences of opinion must be tabooed, and the 
school loses its vitality. . . . Civics in the 
above large sense mnst be the new religion of 
the secular schools. The old religion gave but 
the motive that created and, for centuries 
dominated, education through all its grades. 
... In the new civics, however, we have the 
best substitute, a philanthropic social religion. 
. . . We seem to be at the dawn of a new 
dispensation, imminent rather than trans- 
cendent."" 

A Committee of the N". E. A. which made a 
report relating to the social studies " believes 
that the training of youth for citizenship must 
include instruction in economic questions that 
lie at the foundation of civic life. Emphasis is 
given to economic topics in the outline for 
** community civics" (see circular No. 5) and 

" G. S. Han's Educational Problems, Vol. II, p. 682. 

"U. S. Bureau of Education, Civic Education, Series No. 
6, Civic Education in Secondary Schools (Abstract of Re- 
port of N. E. A. Committee on Social Studies continued 
from Civic Education Series, No. 5). Survey of Vocations 
and Economics. 



94 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 

opportunity is presented for mncli more than 
is directly suggested in the outline. The com- 
mittee favors something of specific vocational 
bearing in the first year of the high school, and 
suggests a *^ survey of vocations/' 

*'The committee has in mind (1) That the 
economic well-being of the individual and of 
the community is fundamental to good civic 
life, and that the youth needs help in finding 
a vocation for which he is fitted and by which 
he can render a maximum of service. (2) That, 
since every youth has an interest in the choice 
of his vocation, it serves as an effective avenue 
of approach to a study of the broader civiS 
relations, many of which are clearly illustrated 
in industrial or economic life. ^^ 

In the fourth year the committee suggests a 
course to unfold the broader principles of 
economics further and more systematically 
than can be done in earlier courses. The com- 
mittee is not ready to make precise recommen- 
dations as to its organization, or as to its 

" Abstract of Report of N. E. A. Committee on the Social 
Studies. 



REQUIRED SUBJECTS: SOCIAL STUDIES 95 

articulation with the ^^advanced civics" of the 
same year and with the other social studies. 
The articulation should be as close and the 
study as concrete as possible, with special em- 
phasis upon the divisions of consumption and 
production. H. R. Burch of the Manual Train- 
ing High School of Philadelphia, and a member 
of the committee says: 

**The high school work in economics should 
center around concrete problems. For instance, 
a discussion of the consumption of wealth can 
readily be focused upon the cost of the neces- 
saries of life; the relation between wages and 
such costs ; the standard of living of groups of 
people in the immediate neighborhood. Pupils 
can analyze expenditures of their own families 
to show the proportion devoted to food, rent, 
clothing, etc. They may formulate the expen- 
diture of $1500 a year for a family containing, 
four children. 

'*0n the side of production the best concrete 
material is that which relates to labor. Pupils 
can ob"Berve the characteristics of the labor in 
a given section of the city, or in a given Indus- 



96 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 

try. In almost any manufacturing center their 
observations will lead directly into the prob- 
lems of immigration, which is concrete and as 
vital as any question connected with the modern 
industrial system. 

** Another subject for concrete analysis is the 
way in which labor is organized in different 
industries, the proportion of men who are com- 
mon laborers, the proportion of those who are 
skilled, and the relation of these numbers to 
the number of higher officials. Conservation 
may be discussed in connection with the use 
of natural resources. In almost any section of 
the country pupils can observe the waste in 
agricultural land and in manufacturing pro- 
cesses. Constructive work may be done by 
showing how these wastes are utilized through 
conversion into forms commercially valuable. 

**One of the most important developments 
of the next ten years in the work of the public 
schools will involve the closer correlation of 
school work and the industrial and commercial 
work of the districts in which the schools are 
located. Newspaper and magazine reading will 



BEQUIRED SUBJECTS; SOCIAL STUDIES 97 

enable tlie students to take up some of the 
larger phases of economic life. The trusts can 
be studied ; the tariff discussed. Labor legisla- 
tion, pure food laws, and other forms of legis- 
lative control of industry can be emphasized. 
The social movements of the day form valuable 
topics for class discussion." 



CHAPTER VI 

EEQUIEED SUBJECTS: (CONTINUED) — ^ENGLISH 

OuB efforts in regard to how to study and 
how to teach English ** reminds us of the con- 
dition of many Christians described by Dante 
who strove by prayers to get nearer to God, 
when in fact with every petition they were de- 
parting farther from Him.'' According to G. 
Stanley Hall, the present degeneration in the 
command of the English language is due to four 
causes, namely: (1) too much time is devoted 
to foreign languages, (2) the study of litera- 
ture and content is too often subordinated to 
language study and mere form, (3) reading 
and writing are too early substituted for hear- 
ing and speaking, (4) the growing preponder- 
ance of concrete words for designating things 
of sense and physical acts over and against 

98 



REQUIRED SUBJECTS: ENGLISH 99 

higher elements of language which deal with 
concepts, with ideals, and non-material things. 
In this chapter we shall consider the first three 
points. 

First: One of the main reasons for poor 
English in high school is because of the exces- 
sive time given to other languages just at the 
psychological period of greatest linguistic 
plasticity and capacity for growth. Dr. Hall 
aptly says, **Very grave is the danger that the 
idiomatic use of the mother tongue will he de- 
stroyed by * translation English.' '' A boy 
pieces together into an English sentence, which 
is as weird as it is literal, a series of definitions, 
and tolerance of this style impairs his sentence 
sense and fine feeling for his mother tongue. 
He never learns to fuse the sense of it in a cru- 
cible of his own intelligence and to recast it in 
the most effective way which the genius of his 
own tongue makes possible. It is a psychological 
impossibility to pass through the apprentice- 
ship stage of learning foreign languages at the 
age when the vernacular is setting without 
crippling it. 



100 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 

** There is little educational value — and per- 
haps it is de-educational — to learn to tell the 
time of day or name a spade in several different 
tongues or to learn to say the Lord's Prayer 
in many different languages, any one of which 
the Lord only can understand. Some declare 
it a shame for a boy to excel in Latin composi- 
tion and in the high schools of Sweden and Nor- 
way it has been practically abandoned. Prime 
regard is had for what pupils will need as self- 
supporting, self-respecting, and efficient mem- 
bers of society. As a result illiteracy is, in 
Norway, a vanishing fraction of 1 per cent. 
The extremes are the youth in ancient Greece 
studying his own language only and the modern 
high school boy dabbling in three or four 
languages." 

Although Dr. Hall is opposed to Latin as a 
required study in high school, nevertheless, he 
believes profoundly in it both as a university 
specialty and for all students who even ap- 
proach mastery. It is for the vast numbers 
who stop studying the subject in the early 
stages of proficiency that he speaks ; to these it 



REQUIRED SUBJECTS: ENGLISH 101 

is disastrous to the vernacular. Tlie psycliology 
of translation shows that it gives the novice 
a consciousness of etymologies which rather 
impedes than helps the free movement of the 
mind. Dr. Jowett is of the same opinion. He 
said in substance that it is almost impossible 
to render either of the great dead languages 
into English without compromise, and this 
tends to injure the idiomatic mastery of one's 
own tongue, which can be got only by much 
hard experience in uttering our thoughts before 
trying to shape the dead thoughts of others in 
our language. We realize that this argument 
is sound if we compare the evils of 'translation 
English' which not even the most competent 
and laborious teaching can wholly prevent and 
which careless mechanical instruction directly 
fosters, with the vigorous fresh productions of 
a boy or girl writing or speaking of something 
of vital present interest. 

Often the question is asked, **Has not Latin 
value merely as a 'linguistic discipline?' " In 
answering this question Dr. Conradi ^ says that 

*See article on Latin in the Ped. Sem. for March, 1905, 



102 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 

Latin is a linguistic discipline is true, any 
language is, but whether it is the best, the most 
fruitful linguistic discipline for the high school 
student who knows only his mother tongue and 
who will drop Latin as soon as, or before, his 
high school course is ended, is a question that 
should be seriously considered. 

Says C. W. Eliot, **It is a waste to society 
and an outrage upon the individual to make 
the boy spend the years when he is most teach- 
able in a discipline the end of which he can 
never reach when he might have spent them in 
a different discipline, which would have been 
rewarded by achievement. ^ Our literatures the 
world over . . . are so rich, so full of thought, 
feeling, and action, that there is no time to 
waste . . . upon lifeless material, when we 
may be occupying ourselves in those exercises 
and for the same purpose of discipline, with 
material that enriches the human mind and re- 
fines and touches the human heart. Modern 

by Dr. Edward Conradi, now President of Florida State 
College. 

»C. W. Eliot, Educational Reform, p. 117. The Century 
Co.. 1901. 



REQUIRED SUBJECTS: ENGLISH 103 

education in its adjustment is bringing the child 
into its literary inheritance in a new spirit." 

**The modern world has developed a culture 
of its own. . . . The first question," says Dr. 
N. M. Butler, **to be asked of any course of 
study is, *Does it lead to a knowledge of our 
contemporary civilization r If not, it is neither 
efficient nor Hberal." *^ Culture," said 0. W. 
Holmes, **in the form of fruitless knowledge, 
I utterly abhor." 

One of the chief reasons advanced for giving 
Latin such a prominent place in the high school 
is that the English vocabulary is so largely de- 
rived from Latin. We have, it is true, many 
words from the Latin directly, or through the 
French. An exact estimate of the foreign ele- 
ment in our language is impossible, but roughly 
speaking, about two-fifths, according to one 
authority^ of the words found in the English 
dictionary are derived from Latin. The con- 
tributions of the Latin language to the English 
are next in importance and amount to those of 

■Dr. C. D. staples, A Critique of High School Latin. 
Ped. Sem., Dec, 1912. 



104 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 

the Anglo-Saxon. It is interesting to note here 
that 96 per cent of the words of Chapters, I, IV, 
and XVII of the Gospel according to John, and 
87 per cent of the words used by Longfellow in 
writing Miles Standish are Anglo-Saxon. 

When we consider the number of words de- 
rived from Latin we naturally assume that the 
study of Latin is very important to the high 
school student, but when we learn that the * ^ 2000 
Latin words studied in the high school do not 
at all fairly represent the Latin element in 
English speech/' and especially when we learn 
that ' * only 99 words out of the entire 2000 Latin 
words studied in the complete four-year high 
school course are worth studying because they 
throw light and information upon English 
words," * do we not modify our views in regard 
to the importance of Latin as a required study 
in high school. 

We are coining and borrowing words every 
day from foreign languages, but with all of its 
borrowings English has remained true to itself 
and no amount of study of Latin grammar can 

•Dr. C. D. staples, A Critique of High School Latin, 
Ped. Sem., Dec, 1912. 



REQUIRED SUBJECTS: ENGLISH 105 

give US the force of living Englisli idiom. The 
structure of English is English. Latin and 
Greek are ** incidents or accidents, not necessi- 
ties" of our mother tongue, in fact **no 
language is a model for another." For the 
ordinary boy or girl the inflections and conjuga- 
tions of the foreign languages are ** simply a 
millstone around the neck." Not '^fossil gram- 
mar, but living speech is a matter for education." 
*^ Latin has no more shaped the English tongue 
than Eome has built the Saxon heart or made 
the Saxon arm. English grammar is soundly 
Anglo-Saxon run through the sieve of the mind 
that never had a Latin bent. ' ' ® 

A few years ' study of Latin in the high school 
does not necessarily give one a command of 
an English vocabulary. ''Statistical studies 
show that five hours a week for a year give 
command of but a few hundred words, that two 
years do not double this number, and that the 
command of the language and its resources in 
the original is almost never attained, but that 
it is abandoned not only by the increasing per- 

'Dr. Alexander F. Chamberlain. 



106 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCS 

oentage who do not go to college, but also by 
the increasing percentage who drop it forever 
at the college door.''® Latin is a language so 
different from ours that it presents baffling diffi- 
culties to the young beginner. Paulsen thinks 
this difference is an obstacle which can be over- 
come only by an exclusive sojourn for many 
years in the world of antiquity. 

Speaking of *Hhe acquisition of a competent 
knowledge of English" Dr. C. W. Eliot says: 
^* Indeed there is no subject in which competent 
guidance and systematic instruction are of 
greater value." He believes, however, that the 
study of Latin is not an effective way to acquire 
a ** competent knowledge of English."^ 

Dr. Conradi® contends that we ought to let 
the high school student study the English words 
in their natural habitat as they live among 
other words, in poetry and in prose, instead of 
worshiping their ancestors. The history of 

• Youth, p. 242. 

»C. W. EUot, Educational Reform, pp. 99-100, Century 
Co., 1901. 
"Fed. Sem., March, 1905. 



REQUIRED SUBJECTS: ENGLISH 107 

a word has little meaning for him until he 
knows the word in its present use, then and 
then only can derivation have value. Suppose 
a pupil knows the etymology of a word; sup- 
pose he does know the Latin meaning of res 
and publica; does that give him the meaning 
of the word ** republican" as used to-day? 

Moreover, says Dr. Conradi, must the student 
worry through all the intricacies of Latin gram- 
mar with its innumerable rules and countless 
exceptions in order to know a little about the 
meaning that the Eomans attached to the word 
virtue? Some of the noblest interpretations of 
such words have been given by men and women 
who never wrestled once, neither with a Latin 
ablative nor with a Latin subjunctive. Is it 
not of more importance that the pupils should 
know the force of a word in current use? 

The roots that the student finds by the long 
and wearisome Latin road are often not ap- 
preciated because of the company in which they 
are found. Moreover, language did not begin 
with Latin nor was it created in any other 



108 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 

period of the past. It is being created now 
as well as in the past ages. It is ever changing ; 
and this living, ever-creating activity is of vital 
importance and not the burnt cinders of ages 
past. Whatever value they may have, they do 
not represent our language. 

** Language as used on the platform, and in 
the pulpit, by the common laborer, and by the 
press, as used by the writers and singers of 
this age . . . when intellect is at white heat, 
and passion in its every throe . . . that repre- 
sents the language of to-day. Such language 
studied in the height of its activity gives the 
true meaning of words. Whether the word was 
borrowed from Latin, from Greek, from He- 
brew, or Choctaw, it now is English, and as 
English we study it; the etymology is a sec- 
ondary matter. This idea was recognized by 
the makers of the Standard Dictionary when 
they placed the etymology after the definition. ' ' ® 

Second: Another reason for poor results in 
English is that too often literature and content 
are subordinated to language work. The 

•Dr. A. F. Chamberlain. 



REQUIRED SUBJECTS: ENGLISH 109 

teachers of English are often critical rather 
than creative, Dr. Hall asserts. They prefer 
the minute and careful reading of a few master- 
pieces to a wide general knowledge, whereas 
the way to teach language, he contends, is to 
focus the mind upon story, history, oratory, 
drama, Bible, for their esthetic, mental and 
above all their moral content. And it is this 
wide, sympathetic, general knowledge that the 
youthful mind chiefly seeks. 

**Oral and written vents for interests so in- 
tense that they must be told and shared, are 
what teach us how to command the resources 
of our mother tongue. The prescriptions and 
corrections and consciousness of the manifold 
ways of error are never so peculiarly likely to 
hinder rather than to help as in early adoles- 
cence, when the soul has a new content, and a 
new sense for it, and so abhors and is so in- 
capable of precision and propriety of diction. "^^ 

**We see its results in the ultra-fastidious 
effusions of many writers for college journals, 
whose art culminates in the over-refined elabor- 

» Youth, p. 245. 



UO EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 

ation of some petty trifle, all form and no con- 
tent/^ . . . Some want everything done in a 
minute and exact way. How different all this 
from the standpoint of those who believe in 
consulting human nature and needs." . . . The 
graces of speech and reading aloud and story 
telling are too often subordinated."" 

Teachers must guide, incite, provide, pre- 
scribe, allure by story, reading lists, display of 
books, and by reading aloud, says Dr. Hall. 
Moreover, he declares, **The current detailed 
study of a few standard texts I believe to be 
often pernicious. To be intensive, reading 
must be extensive and rapid enough to sustain 
interest to the end. There should always be a 
glow and heat about it. Form is best impressed 
by eager zest in the subject matter which should 
always lead. Eeading for philological or 
rhetorical study of texts is for pretty mature 
men and women and not for youth and still 
less for children." 



»G. S. HaU, School Review, Dec, 1901, p. 658. 
"Ibid., p. 658. 
"Ibid., p. 659. 



REQUIRED SUBJECTS: ENGLISH 111 

'^Scliool pressure should not suppress tlie in- 
stinct of omnivorous reading, which at this age 
sometimes prompts the resolve to read ency- 
clopedias, and even libraries, or to sample every- 
thing to be found in books at home. Along 
with, but never suppressing it, there should be 
some stated reading, but this should lay down 
only kinds of reading or offer a goodly number 
of alternative groups of books and authors and 
permit wide liberty of choice to both teacher 
and pupil. Few triumphs of the uniformi- 
tarians, who sacrifice individual needs to 
mechanical convenience in dealing with youth 
in masses, have been so sad as marking off and 
standardizing a definite quantum of knowledge 
in this great field. The wide acceptance of re- 
quirement books and authors mark a pedagogic 
decadence as one of the most disastrous tri- 
umphs of mechanism and convenience over 
mental needs. ' ' ^* 

When the public high school really becomes, 
as it surely will, the people's college, permeated 
with ideals of fitting for life, which is very 

"G. S. HaU, School Review, Dec, 1901, p. 660. 



U2 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 

different from fitting for college, then secondary 
education will become truly democratic; it will 
have plenty of local color and fitting for college 
will become, as Dr. Jordan well says it should 
be, a mere incident. The public high school will 
say to the college, * Fitting is not our chief busi- 
ness ; you are not our pacemaker ; our business 
is to do the best we can for the youth at this 
stage ; take our finished product or leave it, but 
if either of us bend, it must be the college.' 

** Reading for style or even with chief atten- 
tion to it is for young students an affectation. 
I would have at least half a dozen plays of 
Shakespeare in the same time now usually de- 
voted to one. To study Ivanhoe, instead of 
passing on to the other of Scott's novels after 
having once read it, is working with dulled tools. 
Did this critical study of one of anyone 's works 
ever prompt the student to read another by the 
same author?'' 

The time for critical reading has not yet come, 
and that for philology is still farther ahead. 
The best thing youth gets from literature is 
not linguistic and is not examinable; content 



REQUIRED SUBJECTS: ENGLISH 113 

should be forever uppermost, for only then can 
the other culture effects here sought be attained. 

*'The psycho-genetic theory gives a new and 
higher psychology and pedagogy of reading not 
yet worked out in detail, but the outlines of 
which can already be roughly indicated some- 
what as follows: Its supreme function is not 
utilitarian, or to help us in all vocational bread- 
winning activities in life, important as this is, 
but it is humanistic^ cultural, liberal. It should 
aim to give vent to all possibilities of the soul, 
most of which otherwise slumber through life 
and perhaps atrophy,^® o o o A book, or some- 
times an article, at the right moment has often 
changed the current of a whole lifetime. ''^^ 

**The chief thing and the best I got from 
my college course," says Dr. Hall, *'was due 
to a series of reading fevers, stimulated by a 
group of nine classmates called the Junto, who 
met weekly to pool the results of their reading. 
There was almost no class of English literature 
that we did not sample . » . and the farther we 

"Educational Problems, II, p. 482. 
••Ibid., p. 483. 



114 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 

got from the curriculum the better work we did 
and the more we knew. ... I never could pass 
an examination on any one of all these works 
as examinations now go, nor scores and perhaps 
hundreds of others that have flown lightly 
through my mind as diversions any more than 
I could on all the plays I have seen in the 
theater, but I would not exchange this habit of 
desultory reading in a field outside my specialty 
for the schoolbred habit of accurate and pains- 
taking familiarity with a few things such as 
professors of literature inculcate, for this would 
greatly slow down my pace and cool my ardor." 
Dr. C. W. Eliot says, **From the total train- 
ing during childhood there should result in the 
child a taste for interesting and improving 
reading, which should direct and inspire its sub- 
sequent intellectual life. . . . Guided and ani- 
mated by this impulse to acquire knowledge, the 
individual will continue to educate himself all 
through life. ^Without that deep-rooted impul- 
sion he will soon cease to draw on the accu- 
mulated wisdom of the past and the new 
resources of the present; and as he grows older, 



REQUIRED SUBJECTS; ENGLISH 115 

he will live in a mental atmosphere which is 
always growing thinner and emptier. . , .Do 
we not all know many people who seem to live 
in a mental vacuum — ^to whom, indeed, we have 
great difficulty in attributing immortality, be- 
cause they apparently have so little life except 
that of the body? The uplifting of the demo- 
cratic masses depends on this implanting at 
school of the taste for good reading. ' ' 

The pupils should write themes occasionally, 
but they should never be compelled to say any- 
thing unless they have something to say. In 
order to write well, they must have something 
definite in mind that presses for utterance: 
ideas to set forth, knowledge to impart, feelings 
to utter, convictions to state, experiences to 
describe, facts or thoughts to put down, other- 
wise literary efforts are but verbiage. "When- 
ever children speak and especially write with- 
out a very real and urgent content, they are 
demoralized and their education is anti-social. 
The habit of utterance without having some- 
thing that presses for expression undermines 



116 EDUCATIO^NT DURING ADOLESCENCE 

tlie foundation of honesty between man and 
man, and loosens the social bond. " 

**If the pupils read, it must be what absorbs 
and carries them along, be what their curiosity- 
burns to know. They must be impelled by 
some strong interests and impulses character- 
istic of youth. If there are plenty of these 
things the big P's of the rhetorics — purity, 
precision and propriety — come of themselves 
untaught or are inculcated by the method that 
suffices for genius, whether in teacher or taught 
— viz., that of hints. Some familiarity with the 
best contemporary writers whose pages burn 
with the problems of the present and that strike 
home by their inherent appeal and to approach 
which it is not necessary to waste half of the 
energies of the teacher in getting and keeping 
up interest, gives a culture which is not a sickly 
cellar plant and which does not desiccate when 
school is abandoned. ' ' ^® 

In his ** Educational Problems'' Dr. Hall 
makes a strong plea for the study of contem- 

"G. S.Hall. 

« Ibid. 



REQUIRED SUBJECTS: ENGLISH 117 

porary writers and modes of expression. He 
says, ''As for Burke, Macaulay, Addison, now 
so often required, their language and style 
would not be tolerated in Congress, in a modern 
historical society, nor in a history journal. . . . 
Youth has its own lingua franca, crispy, con- 
densed, pointed, picturesque, staccato, and its 
nature and needs fit the ponderous Latin style 
of the above English authors as Saul's armor 
fitted young David. As for Scott, he should 
be read rapidly as romance and not studied in 
a detailed way as literature." 

Dr. David Snedden is of the same opinion as 
Dr. Hall for he says in a recent contribution, 
* ' Certainly the possibilities of literature teach- 
ing are very great. Should not the teachers 
see that the material chosen and the methods 
of presentation are such as will briag the 
children to a better appreciation of the litera- 
ture and reading by which they will be sur- 
rounded later in life and leave them in a con- 
dition to demand the slightly better rather than 
the slightly worse? Should not the teacher deal 
much with the best of our current magazines 



118 EDUCATION 'DURING ADOLESCENCE 

and newspapers? Should he hold aloof from 
the current fiction, in view of the certainty that 
it will form the staple reading after these boys 
and girls leave school? This is no defense of 
the poor and cheap in literature or art; it is 
simply a statement of the now accepted peda- 
gogical truth that education proceeds most 
effectively by utilizing the best materials of the 
environment, in such a way as best to fit the 
pupil for the environment in which he will spend 
his adult life." 

One of the most important of all educational 
services of the near future is to re-write and 
re-edit ^^ all the world's great literatures upon 
all themes ; for the student is to-day confronted 
by a mass of literature and must read for dear 
life or he is sw^amped. . . . For the most alert, 
the function of judicious epitomes, reviews, 
year-books, etc., is increasingly necessary. 
Every scientific journal should stress the de- 
velopment of resumes of both books and articles, 
and indeed owes a duty if not its very raison 
d'etre largely in this direction. As it is, there 

» Genetic Philosophy of Education, p. 233. 



REQUIRED SUBJECTS: ENGLISH 119 

is much wastage of work done over and over 
again by those who did not know that others 
before them had covered their ground and 
reached their own conclusions.^^ In Germany 
**many careful digests of great standard works 
have been made embodying salient phrases and 
quotations from the original, epic and lyric 
poetry, exploration, adventure, biography, and 
even jests and humorous tales, which must be 
read as part of the course in literature with 
a little of it studied in detail and memorized 
— all this marks a new and important step 
toward the practical solution of the great prob- 
lem of language and literature in secondary 
education. ' ' ^^ 

Third: We might get better results in our 
English work if reading and writing were not 
too early substituted for hearing and speaking. 
**It is hard and, in the history of the race, a 
late change to receive language through the eye 
which reads instead of through the ear which 
hears.^^ . . . The invention of letters is a 

^ Educational Problems, 11^ pp. 48d-487. 
" G. S. HaU, Ped. Sem., Mar., 1902, p. 101. 
« Youth, p. 246. 



120 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 

novelty in tlie history of the race that spoke for 
countless ages before it wrote. . . . The book 
is dead and more or less impersonal, best ap- 
prehended in solitude, its matter more intel- 
lectualized; it deals in remoter second-hand 
knowledge so that Plato reproached Aristotle 
as a reader, one removed from the first spon- 
taneous source of original impression and 
ideas; the doughty medieval knights scorned 
reading as a mere clerk's trick, not wishing to 
muddle their wits with other people's ideas 
when their own were good enough for 
them. ..." 

**The printed page must not be too suddenly 
or too early thrust between the child and life. 
The plea is for more oral and objective work, 
more stories, narratives, and even vivid read- 
ings, as is now done statedly in more than a 
dozen of the public libraries of the country, 
not so often by teachers as by librarians, all 
to the end that the ear, the chief receptacle of 
language, be maintained in its dominance, that 
the fine sense of sound, rhythm, cadence, pro- 
nunciation, and speech-music generally be not 



REQUIRED SUBJECTS: ENGLISH 121 

atrophied, that the eye which normally ranges 
freely from far to near be not injured by the 
confined treadmill and zig-zag of the printed 
page."^^ 

** Closely connected with this, and perhaps 
psychologically worse, is the substitution of the 
pen and the scribbling fingers for the mouth 
and tongue. Speech is directly to and from the 
soul. Writing, the deliberation of which fits 
age better than youth, slows down its im- 
petuosity many fold, and is in every way 
farther removed from vocal utterance than is 
the eye from the ear. Never have there been 
so many pencils, and such excessive scribbling 
as in the calamopapyrus ^* pedagogy of to-day 
and in this country. Not only has the daily 
theme spread as an infection, but the daily les- 
son is now extracted through the point of a 
pencil instead of from the mouth.'' ^^ 

"Of course the pupils must write, and write 
well, just as they must read, and read much; 

a G. S. HaU, Youth, p. 247. 

" Pen-paper. 

»G. S. Hall, Youth, p. 247. 



122 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 

but English suffers from insisting upon this 
double long circuit too early and cultivating it 
to excess; it devitalizes school language and 
makes it a little unreal, like other affectations 
of adult ways, so that on escaping from its 
thraldom the child and youth slump back to the 
language of the street as never before." ^^ 

**This is a false application of the principle 
of learning to do by doing. The young do not 
learn to write by writing, but by reading and 
hearing. For the young the spoken should 
have constant precedence over written words. 
Language does its social function best in free 
conversation between pupils and teacher, pro- 
vided, only the topics and methods are well 
chosen, and the teacher's mind is full to over- 
flowing. Nothing so sharpens the mind and 
quickens thought as seeking and finding facts 
and truths in common. To become a good 
writer one must read, feel, think, experience, 
until he has something to say that others want 
to hear. The golden age of French Literature, 
as Gaston Deschamps and Brunetiere have 

*»Cf. G. S. HaU, School Review. Dec, 1901, p. 659. 



REQUIRED SUBJECTS: ENGLISH 123 

lately told us, was that of the salon, when con- 
versation dominated letters, set fashions, and 
made the charm of French style. Its lowest 
ebb was when bookishness led and people began 
to talk as they wrote. The best literature is 
fashioned on the best conversation, while if 
talk becomes bookish, it loses vitality." ^^ 

« G. S. HaU. 



CHAPTER VII 

REQUIRED SUBJECTS: (CONTINUED) — HISTORY 

Why should all students be required to study 
at least some phases of history from prehistoric 
times to the present? What is the value or 
the purpose of history? What can and should 
it do for the student? What phases of history 
should be emphasized and, finally, what methods 
should be employed in teaching the subject? 
We shall discuss these questions in the order 
stated. 

I. THE VALUE OF HISTOEY 

The study of history is valuable because of 
the knowledge gained, and especially so if the 
essential facts of selected subjects are empha- 
sized. And this some contend is the funda- 

124 



REQUIRED SUBJECTS: HISTORY 125 

mental purpose. We are told that in addition 
to getting a general view of universal history 
we ought to emphasize certain ** mountain 
peaks" — ^we ought to form, if possible, an ade- 
quate conception of the most notable things 
done by the human race. But '^what for" it 
may be asked. Surely the study of history is 
not merely to know what has happened and 
what man has accomplished in all fields of 
human endeavor, although this is highly desir- 
able. Truth for truth's sake, or history for 
history's sake is important. We get consider- 
able pleasure just in knowing facts and know- 
ing that we know. But we cannot stop here. 
Knowledge must be applied. 

Educators who believe in the new pedagogy 
contend, and you have heard the statement over 
and over again, that the study of the past helps 
us to sympathize with, to explain and to appre- 
ciate the present, and aids in solving contem- 
porary problems pertaining to sociology, 
economics, and government. By learning of 
the successes and triumphs of the past in these 
fields of knowledge, we may profit by them, and 



126 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 

by learning of the mistakes and failures, we 
may avoid them. Dr. Jordan tells a story in 
one of Ms books ^ abont a * * Chinese emperor 
who decreed that he was to be first; that all 
history was to begin with him, and that nothing 
was to be before him. But we cannot enforce 
such a decree.'' For, says Dr. Jordan, *^We 
are not emperors of China. The world's work 
and the world's experience does not begin with 
us. We must know the paths our predecessors 
have trodden, if we would tread them farther; 
we must stand upon their shoulders — dwarfs 
upon the shoulders of giants — if we would look 
farther into the future than they. . . . Science, 
philosophy, statesmanship, cannot for a mo- 
ment let go of the past. The present we know, 
but we can know it thoroughly only in the light 
of the past. What has been must determine 
what is, and the present is bound to the past 
by unchanging law." 

** Assuming that good citizenship and pa- 
triotism are the religion of the public school, 
should it not be our prime object to make in- 

*D. S. Jordan, Care and Culture of Men, pp. 4-5. 



REQUIRED SUBJECTS: HISTORY 127 

telligent citizen voters, and lay the first stress 
upon duties to the state and society?''^ Can 
this not be done through the study of history? 
The view that history should prepare students 
for citizenship *4s greatly emphasized by the 
modern interest in sociology and the need of 
amelioration and reform and immensely re-en- 
forced by the needs of modern political and 
social life. " ^ 

** Granted that history should give a growing 
self knowledge in the present living progressive 
age, can we truly fit for this except by living 
through all the important stages of the past and 
repeating each significant step by which the 
present was reached? . . . Indeed, is not fitting 
for life in the present, the best way of fit- 
ting for life in the ever larger future? '^ 

But this is not all. Besides giving the stu- 
dent knowledge of facts and aiding him to see 
the value of the past in explaining the present, 
and helping him to solve the contemporary 
problems, thus making him a better citizen, his- 

*G. S. HaU, Educational Problems, II, p. 285. 
•Ibid. p. 285. 



128 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 

tory teaches tlie student ^Ho tliink historically 
and helps him to acquire the habit of seeing all 
events in temporal perspective * as products of 
growth and development. ' ' ^ It shows him how 
the law of cause and effect works in human 
aifairs. Even if the student is unable to re- 
member many historical facts, he nevertheless 
** comes to see that one thing leads to another; 
he begins quite miconsciously to see that events 
do not simply succeed each other in time, but 
that one grows out of another, or rather out 
of a combination of many others. He thus ac- 
quires some power of seeing relationships and 
detecting analogies. ' ' ^ 

Again, courses in history tend to establish 
habits of correct thinking and sound methods 
of study. And this is just as important as the 
accumulation of information. **In the ordinary 
class room, both in science and mathematics, 
there is little opportunity for discussion, for 

•Cf. Professor Leroy F. Jackson's article, "A Single Aim 
In History Teaching" in History Teacher's Magazine, Oct., 
1914. 

= G. S. Hall, Educational Problems, II, p. 285. 

'Report of Committee of Seven, pp. 21-22. 



REQUIRED SUBJECTS: HISTORY 129 

differences of opinion, for balancing of prob- 
abilities; and yet in every day life we do not 
deal with mathematical demonstrations, or con- 
cern ourselves with scientific observations; we 
reach conclusions, some of them in apparent 
conflict with one another, and none of them sus- 
ceptible of exact measurement and determina- 
tion."^ 

Courses in history not only ''give training 
in acquiring facts, but in arranging and sys- 
tematizing them and putting them forth as an 
individual product. . . . By means of the or- 
dinary oral recitation if properly conducted, 
the student may be taught to express himself 
in well chosen words. In the study of foreign 
language, he learns words and sees distinctions 
in their meanings; in the study of science, he 
learns to speak with technical exactness and 
care; in the study of history, while he must 
speak truthfully and accurately, he must seek 
to find apt words of his own with which to 
describe past conditions and to clothe his ideas 
in a broad field of work which has no tech- 

' Report of Committee of Seven, p. 22. 



130 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 

nical method of expression and no peculiar 
phraseology. ' ' ^ 

All recognize the fact that the ability to 
gather *^ information is important, and this 
ability the study of history cultivates, ' ' but the 
ability to use information *4s of greater im- 
portance,^' and this ability too is developed by 
historical work. If a student is taught * * to get 
ideas and facts from various books, and to put 
these ideas and facts together into a new form, 
his ability to make use of knowledge is in- 
creased and strengthened. ... He develops 
capacity for effective work, not capacity for 
absorption alone. History is also helpful in 
developing what is sometimes called the scien- 
tific habit of mind and thought. In a sense this 
may mean the habit of thorough investigation 
for one's self of all sources of information be- 
fore one reaches conclusions or expresses de- 
cided opinions. ' ' ® Although the student must 
accept the work of others, the scientific spirit 
gained through the study of history will lead 

•Report of the Committee of Seven, p. 26. 
•Ibid., p. 23. 



REQUIRED SUBJECTS: HISTORY 131 

him to study and examine many accounts and 
cause him to think long and hard on the subject 
under consideration before he positively asserts. 
In connection with this, a suggestion to the 
teacher might be added. He should point out 
the advantage of approaching every question 
without prejudice, and he should have the stu- 
dent learn that **open mindedness, candor, 
honesty, are requisites'' for the attainment of 
exact knowledge.^** 

In view of these facts, a few authorities main- 
tain, and I believe they are right, that history 
supplies a kind of intellectual training that can 
be secured in but few other ways. In accumu- 
lating ideas, facts and illustrations from his- 
tory, by reading good collateral books and by 
constant efforts to re-create the real past and 
make it live again, the student enlarges his 
mind, cultivates his perception, stimulates and 
exercises his imagination, strengthens his mem- 
ory, and trains his j"udgment. The student must 
weigh evidence, draw inferences, make com- 
parisons, invent solutions, and form judg- 

" Report of tlie Committee of Seven, p. 24. 






132 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 

ments." He is thus trained in logical and 
philosophical reasoning. 

Again the study of history trains in the use 
of books. It aids the student in learning how 
and where to find information. There is, per- 
haps, no study which offers such opportuni- 
ties as history does for gaining facility in using 
books and in securing desired material, and 
this is a highly important result of historical 
study, for no man can be considered educated 
unless he knows how and where to find informa- 
tion. In fact, *Hhe inability to discover what 
a book contains or where information may be 
found, is one of the common failings of the un- 
schooled and untrained man. ' ' ^^ 
I Furthermore, history, if presented in the 
right way, will inspire the student. He will 



I "If this be the value of history, much responsibility 
( rests upon the teacher. The problem is to get the student 
*'to weigh evidence, draw accurate inferences, make fair 
comparisons, invent solutions and form judgments;" this 
is the serious problem in teaching history as it is in all 
education for efficiency according to Dr. Eliot. (C. W. 
Eliot's Education for Efficiency and the New Definition of 
the Cultivated Man, p. 18, Houghton Mifflin Co., New York, 
1909.) 
"Report of the Committee of Seven, p. 25. 



REQtnEED SUBJECTS: HISTORY 133 

desire to go farther — to see and explore new 
fields; thus the habit of research and a taste 
for good reading will he cultivated. This aim, 
however, is not fulfilled at present, for too 
much time is devoted to * Wesson setting and 
hearing'' and there is **too much examination 
of the memory which always makes learning 
superficial. . . . Precious time is lost in hear- 
ing recitations which should be given to inspir- 
ing and suggesting. " ^^ If the student is 
compelled to make a minute analysis of the text 
and required to memorize much of it, he has 
little time for supplementary reading. Even 
when this method is not followed and when the 
student has time for collateral reading, often 
it is not suited to his interests and capacities. 
Books on the lives of great men and women 
should be studied diligently. If we are to es- 
tablish the habit of research and cultivate a 
taste for good reading, we must allow the stu- 
dent more freedom in selecting his collateral 
reading and encourage him to relate the events 

"G. B. Partridge, Genetic Philosophy of Education, p. 
270. 



134 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 

in the classroom that appeal to him. The stu- 
dent will be stimulated to read more if he is 
permitted to tell of the things that are inter- 
esting, nnusual, striking, and impressive. 

Finally, history, when taught as it should be, 
instills in the mind of the student high ideals, 
gives a sense of appreciation, teaches morality 
by stimulating thought and interest in the 
moral behavior of men and races, develops a 
healthy philosophy of life, and thus aids in the 
formation and development of character. This 
is the point most emphasized by Dr. Hall in 
his discussion of the subject. He says that 
** there must be one dominant aim (in teaching 
history) to which all others, while not eliminated 
should be subordinated.'' If the high school 
teacher will **take his cue from the nature and 
needs of youth, the highest criterion of all 
educational value . . . the moral aim will be 
found fittest to be made supreme. This con- 
clusion is not based chiefly on the fact that in 
every land the percentage of juvenile crime is 
both increasing and becoming more precocious, 
significant as this indication is of the general 



REQUIRED SUBJECTS: HISTORY 135 

need, but on the fact that ethical purposes by 
their very nature can best include and har- 
monize while they also overtop all others." ^* 

** Especially at adolescence the moral pur- 
pose of history should never be lost from sight. 
It should determine every choice, both of 
method, and subject matter" in the history 
courses in high school. ** History should so im- 
press intelligence and will as to inspire to the 
greatest degree ideals of social service and un- 
selfishness. " ^® 

^*Does not history fill all, and must it not 
especially for the young suggest as its supreme 
lesson the power in man and nature that makes 
for righteousness, and is it not this that the 
progress of events from age to age reveals ever 
more clearly?" ^^ Bunsen spoke of God in His- 
tory." Few would define history as Gibbon did 
when he called it a ** record of crime, folly, and 
calamity. For Luther as for Salzmann, it was 
a thesaurus of inspiring ethical examples to 

"G. S. Hall, Educational Problems, II, p. 286. 
"Genetic Philosophy of Education, p. 267. 
*«G. S. Han, Educational Problems, II, p. 296. 
"Ibid., p. 296. 



136 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 

show how all got their deserts in the end. For 
Schmidt it was to illustrate God's ways in the 
world. For Thomas Arnold it demonstrated 
the power working for righteousness, and was 
to give a practical philosophy of life. For 
Droysen, it warns by showing the blindness, 
temptation and folly of men, and inspires them 
by contagion to the emulation of the greatest 
deeds of the greatest and best men of the 
pasf ^^ For Chas. W. Eliot, ^* History shows 
the young the springs of public honor and dis- 
honor; sets before them the national failings, 
weaknesses and sins ; warns them against future 
dangers by exhibiting the losses and sufferings 
of the past; enshrines in their hearts the na- 
tional heroes and strengthens in them the 
precious love of country." 



19 



Summary 

There are several good reasons wHj all 
should study history: 
First : This study is valuable because of the 

" G. S. Hall, Educational Problems. Vol. II, p. 296. 
"C. W. Eliot, Educational Ileforni, p. 105. 



REQUIRED SUBJECTS: HISTORY 137 

knowledge gained, and especially so if the es- 
sential facts of selected subjects are empha- 
sized. 

Second: It helps one to understand and to 
appreciate the present and aids in solving con- 
temporary problems pertaining to sociology, 
economics, and government. 

Third: History teaches the student to think 
historically and helps him to acquire the habit 
of seeing all events in temporal perspective, as 
the products of growth and development. 

Fourth: It aids the student in establishing 
habits of correct thinking and sound methods 
of study, and supplies a most fruitful kind of 
intellectual training, which is fully as important 
as the accumulation of information. 

Fifth: The study of history trains the stu- 
dent in the use of books, and this is a highly 
important reason for studying history, for no 
man is considered educated to-day who does 
not know how and where to find information. 

Sixth : History, if presented in the right way, 
will inspire the student. He will desire to go 
farther — to see and explore new fields, and thus 



138 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 

the habit of research and a taste for good read- 
ing will be cultivated. 

Seventh: It instills in the mind of the stu- 
dent high ideals, gives a sensetof appreciation, 
teaches morality by stimulating thought and 
interest in moral behavior of* men and races, 
develops a healthy philosophy of life, and 
thus aids in the formation and development of 
character. 

11. METHOD IN HISTORY 

Since the teacher should think more of 
quality than of quantity of work, and since 
quality and quantity of work rarely go together, 
the question naturally arises, what events and 
phases of history should be emphasized? There 
are so many facts to consider that the teacher 
has time only for the essentials. Events great 
in their consequences, it is generally conceded, 
should be selected and emphasized. Just facts 
that are characteristic should be stressed. 

If we accept this, the next question to be an- 
swered is : From what field shall we select most 



REQUIRED SUBJECTS: HISTORY 139 

of the cliaracteristic facts — from political his- 
tory or from the history of civilization? His- 
torians are beginning to agree that the former 
should not be emphasized as much as the latter. 
However, they do not contend that political his- 
tory or that part of history dealing with wars, 
dynasties, and political parties should be 
eliminated, but that the history of civilization 
should receive far more attention than it has 
in the past; and, that the time devoted to 
political history should be greatly reduced. 

Any fact of supreme importance in whatever 
field found should be selected and emphasized, 
for one should form, if possible, an adequate 
conception of the most notable things that have 
happened, and of what man has accomplished 
in all fields of human endeavor. Much time 
should be devoted to biography and social his- 
tory. In the past the ordinary text-books, and 
consequently the schools, have stressed prin- 
cipally military history and politics. At pres- 
ent the concensus of educational opinion seems 
to be that our future courses should deal not 
merely with wars, politics and rulers, but rather 



140 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE, 

with the arts and occupations of peace, with! 
science, morals, architecture, sculpture, paint- 
ing, language, literature, religious ideas and 
institutions, commerce and industry, social and 
economic conditions, modern imperialism, social 
life and general culture, the humanitarian 
movements, education and philanthropy. 

To-day, writers on the pedagogy of history 
are practically unanimous in asserting that 
wars especially have, in the past, received too 
much attention. Take the history of our own 
country, for example. '* There was a time,'' 
according to a well-known authority,^^ **when 
textbooks indicated that the Eevolution, the 
Mexican War, and the Civil War with a few 
connecting paragraphs, were about all that 
were necessary to record. Such treatment now 
seems ridiculous in the light of the splendid 
achievements of peace." The following state- 
ment taken from the preface of a recent text- 
book ^^ indicates the present tendency of his- 

** Professor Edmund S. Meany, Suggestions to Teachers 
In his United States History for Schools, Macmillan Co., 
N. Y., 1912. 

"Hall, Smither and Ousley, Student's History of Our 
Country, Southern Publishing Co., Dallas, Texas, 1912. 



REQUIRED SUBJECTS: HISTORY 141 

torieal writing: *^ Short biographical sketches 
of many of our great countrymen are given 
because the lives of leaders typify the people 
they lead. Deeds of heroism and human in- 
terest have been related as space would allow. 
The labors of peace no less than the strife of 
conflict show forth the spirit, the character, and 
the growth of a people, and particular stress 
is laid upon social and economic history as re- 
vealing the most potential forces in the evolu- 
tion of a nation and the most important factors 
in the prosperity and happiness of its people.'* 
Professors Hart and Channing maintain that 
there is no general method suited to all ages 
or circumstances or minds, or even to all parts 
of the subject. Perhaps the most fruitful 
method far pupils of the grammar school age 
and above is the *HopicaP' — the assignment of 
very limited subjects on which pupils are to 
prepare themselves with special care, using a 
variety of material. The advantages of such 
a system are obvious: it breaks up the servile 
adherence to the limited text of a single book; 
it trains in the use of books, in the selection 



142 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 

of pertinent facts out of a mass of material; 
it leads to the comparison of authors, the ex- 
planation of discrepancies, the weighing of 
authorities; it adds life and interest to the 
work. 

Dr. Hall emphasizes the importance of a text- 
book when he says: *^ While pleading for more 
and better oral narrative teaching we should 
surely always have a good text-book to anchor 
to;''^^ and in regard to the lecture method he 
maintains that ^*it is not so much the abolition 
of the lecture method that is wanted in the high 
school as the transformation from monologue 
to dialogue or a kind of active teaching that 
involves constant response and is punctuated 
with question and answer." 

In most high schools. Dr. Hall thinks precious 
time is lost in hearing recitations which should 
be given to inspiring and suggesting. **Note 
taking with some dictation, if careful and judi- 
cious, is a grateful variant for the pupil and 
gives the teacher by simple inspection perhaps 
the best of all tests for promotion. The library, 

"Educational Problems, II, p. 293, 



REQUIRED SUBJECTS: HISTORY 143 

collateral reading, with co-operative methods 
and e:fforts, learning to work together and to 
work for the common good, suggest also a much 
larger collection of books and a comparative 
use of them in every school and may mark a 
new epoch in the habits of study." ^^ 

**Too many maps, even large ones from the 
government, too incessant reference to geog- 
raphy, and especially too many pictures, 
lantern slides, perhaps games with historical 
cards, it seems to me, some authorities to the 
contrary notwithstanding, we can hardly have. 
Colored chronological charts of both universal 
history and that of special countries, genealog- 
ical schemes of dynasties and reigning families, 
statistical diagrams from the census depart- 
ment, curves of financial, industrial, and vital 
data, the cycle and spiral method — seems to 

be too little favored by The Committee of 
Seven. "2* 

**Are not both the unit block and the inten- 
sive method involving any high degree of ae- 

» Educational Problems, II, p. 293. 
^Ibid., p. 293. 



144 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 

curacy and detail too academic and should the 
high school teacher have to think much of satis- 
fying college entrance examinations? Is that 
teacher not a poor devil, in the printer's sense 
at least, who brings into much prominence the 
collecting of, and class work upon, old entrance 
examination papers ? ^^ Should he not sow a 
great deal of seed upon the waters which he 
never expects to see again in recitation or ex- 
amination, and trust something to the intuitive 
apperceptive powers of the young? ^^ Does not 
the examination type of memory often tend to 
keep things near the surface and in the merely 
cognitive stage that should sink deeper and at 
once affect conduct and character?*'" 

Although Dr. Hall is opposed to the examina- 
tion type of memory, he nevertheless believes 
in the accumulation of significant facts. How- 
ever, he contends it is not always necessary to 
arrange these facts in logical order, for he says 
that "some teachers have come to fear that the 



»" Educational Problems, II, p. 293. 
"Ibid., p. 294. 
''Ibid., p. 294. 



REQUIRED SUBJECTS: HISTORY 145 

pupil in the high school is actually in danger 
of accumulating a mass of undigested, unsys- 
tematized knowledge and perhaps to fancy that 
this peril is awful and ever impending. But 
have any of us ever seen a dangerous mass of 
knowledge in any youthful mind unless in the 
memory of a freak, and even then are we so 
oblivious to the laws of mental work and 
growth as to think that such a mass of erudi- 
tion could exist in the mind without being as- 
similated in the child's manner, or that even if 
it were a floating plankton, our petty artificial 
devices of correlating, associating, linking can 
have any other possible effect than to prevent 
it from sinking deep into the soul and keep- 
ing it on the surface against the day of ex- 
amination?"^^ 

** History is a story to be told, not 
crammed. "^^ ** There should not be too much 
accuracy -and detail in teaching, for this hampers 
the larger view. If the teacher follows this sug- 
gestion he should not be afraid of the charge 

^ Educational Problems, II, p. 295. 
'"'Ibid., p. 300. 



146 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 

of being unsystematic and superficial, pro- 
vided he can thus better convey his message" 
and approximately fulfill the aims of historical 
study. There is a place for superficiality, Dr. 
Hall thinks, which is not sufficiently recognized 
by high school teachers of history. * ' Connected- 
ness, completeness and unity are not needed in 
the history work up to the time of college. 
Rather the striking, the impressive, that which 
may have the deepest moral effect, must be 
selected, and the dullness of sequences and 
casual chains avoided. The child must be af- 
fected, must absorb and imbibe, and there must 
not be too much learning of facts, nor training 
of the judgment and reason. . . . History must 
be made to impart the power that makes for 
righteousness. . . . The difference, at the great- 
est, is between learning a few dates and facts 
and having the mind filled with moral lessons 
and ideals which will remain as living forces 
throughout life, influencing conduct in fields 
very remote from all the lessons set or 
taught.'' ^° 

"The Genetic Philosophy of Education, p. 269-71. 



REQUIRED SUBJECTS: HISTORY 147 

The assignments in history should be given 
in such a way that the students will know ex- 
actly what they are expected to learn. Aside 
from assigning a very few pages in the text, 
the teacher should point out some of the most 
important things for the students to stress in 
their collateral reading. He ought to give them 
something definite to do — a question to answer, 
a topic to discuss, an outline to make, a problem 
to solve. (Often half the recitation period 
should be devoted to debating some important 
historical question.) If the teacher assigns 
well-chosen topics, questions, and problems 
that are adapted to the capacity of the pupils 
and by requiring them to gather their informa- 
tion from various books, papers, and magazines 
the pupils are trained to collect historical ma- 
terial, to arrange it, and to put it forth. This 
practice, we repeat, develops capacity for effec- 
tive work, not capacity for absorption alone.^^ 

This thought cannot be repeated too often: 
The library, collateral reading, with co-opera- 
tive methods and efforts, learning to work to- 

" Report of the Committee of Seven, p. 23. 



148 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 

gether and to work for tlie common good, 
suggest also a much larger collection of books 
and a comparative use of them in every school. 
In assigning collateral reading, the teacher 
should ask the students to read books suited 
to their interests and capabilities, and those 
phases of history which have the deepest moral 
effect, as just mentioned, should be stressed. 
For this purpose the lives of great men and 
women should be studied in high school far 
more than they are at present. 

**The use of the note-book to supplement and 
occasionally replace the former straight text- 
book course is largely an outgrowth of, or at 
least a close analogy to, the laboratory method 
of science. It grows out of an effort to make 
knowledge concrete and definite, first hand, and 
authoritative. The note-book has small use if 
notes are based entirely upon the text.'' When 
notes include a few extracts from ** source and 
parallel reading, illustrations, and corrective 
and supplementary comments by teacher, with 
best of all some reflections and comparisons by 
the student himself, the kinship with the labora- 



REQUIRED SUBJECTS: HISTORY 149 

tory method becomes apparent. If it were 
practicable to go farther and require students 
to draw sketches showing and comparing ele- 
ments of architecture, illustrating costumes and 
geography, representing plants and animals, 
weapons and tools, and other things of his- 
torical importance which might be studied in 
museums, pictures, stereopticon views, build- 
ings, etc., these sketches, with the notes, would 
approach the laboratory method even more 
closely. If this were done wisely, history 
teaching would be much more effective," but 
it cannot be done to any extent because it takes 
too much time. However, if the students were 
given a day or two ^^off" occasionally from 
their studies, the time could be profitably spent. 
If the sources of history study are drawn 
from a wide range of readings and illustrations, 
the note-book becomes a necessity. Some of 
the work should be written with care, so that, 
it may be preserved in later life with justifiable 
pride. In practice the note-book may be of 
more importance than the text-book.^^ 

« J. E. Pearce, "The Use of the Note Book," in the Texas 
History Teacher's Bulletin, Nov. 15, 1913. 



150 EDUCATIOiC DURING ADOLESCENCE 

** Notes should be taken upon some of the 
assigned and other supplementary reading. 
The advantages are obvious. It places the 
garnered information in definite and effective 
relation with the organized course; it enables 
the teacher to check up assigned reading and 
lastly, it forces the student to reproduce in 
written form the gist of his reading and to sift 
and pass judgment upon it. Student made out- 
lines based upon the text and written into the 
notes are, I think, always more helpful than 
even the best printed ones. If a student or- 
ganizes the subject matter himself, he is com- 
pelled to seek and find relations. This is always 
worth while, even if done clumsily. These out- 
lines may often be a part of a good general 
epitome. ' ' ^^ 

Finally, the main advantage of the note-book 
may be summarized as follows: It forces the 
student into habits of accuracy particularly if 
his notes are examined by someone else. Ex- 
amination of the note-book and the correction 
of errors is essential. It may be done by the 

" J. E. Pearce, "The Use of the Note Book," in the Texas 
History Teacher's Bulletin, Nov. 15, 1913. 



REQUIRED SUBJECTS: HISTORY 151 

students themselves and will be a valuable 
exercise. There is no difficulty involved. Let 
the students exchange books, make corrections 
and return to the teacher, and the teacher will 
have a fair indication of the accuracy and 
character of the notes with little effort. The 
student, on the other hand, has benefited by the 
criticism, in that he has discovered what is 
correct, and what is incorrect. Even outlines 
should generally be thrown into the form of 
clear and definite sentences for the sake of cor- 
rect habits of expression.^* 

The views expressed in the last few para- 
graphs present perhaps the best theory in regard 
to the history note-book and supplementary 
reading, but difficult indeed to put in actual 
practice because the student generally has three 
other courses in addition to history. 

The instructor in history should be careful 
not to insist on too much work and should not 
expect the same amount from every member 
of the class, for to some students history is 
exceedingly difficult to learn. Work should be 

" J. E. Pearce, "The Use of the Note Book," in the Texas 
History Teacher's Bulletin, Nov. 15, 1913. 



152 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 

done according to ability, all of us realize ; but, 
whether it is difficult or not, all students should 
gain some important knowledge of selected sub- 
jects even if it has to be secured by special 
written reports. If the student has the desire 
to learn and the ability to think long and hard 
on the subject, the aims of historical study will 
be fulfilled approximately, and much good will 
be accomplished. It will, I repeat, instill in the 
mind of the student high ideals, mil give a 
sense of appreciation, will develop a healthy 
philosophy of life, and will aid in the formation 
and development of character. It will help to 
establish sound methods of study, and will 
supply excellent intellectual training. The ac- 
curacy of conception and statement required, 
the mastery of principles, the solution of prob- 
lems — all these develop habits of mind of the 
most healthful and useful kind. There is hardly 
any business in which the processes employed 
in studying history are not in constant use, and 
there can be no position in life in which the 
mental discipline gained is valueless ; while the 



REQUIRED SUBJECTS: HISTORY 153 

facts learned are almost indispensable to every 
cultured man and woman. 



III. HISTOEY EECITATION SOCIALIZED 

7. The Aims of the Plan: ^ 

1. To do away with passivity in the class- 
room. 

2. To stimulate initiative and originality. 

3. To correct wrong impressions. 

4. To train the pupil in expression. 

5. To enlarge the pupil's experience. 

6. To help the pupil overcome individual 
weaknesses. 

7. To enable the pupil to form the habit of 
concentrated effort and attention. 

8. To build up in an orderly, logical way, a 
definite store of information. 

* W. T. WMtney in his monograph, The Socialized Recita- 
tion (A. S. Barnes Co., New ^ork City), gives some of 
the aims stated above under the heading "Purpose of the 
Socialized Recitation" but most of them are given as 
"Objects" of the recitation; i. e., the ordinary recitation. 
It seems to me that all may be presented as the "Aims 
of the Socialized Recitation." 



154 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 

9. To enable tlie pupil to express his own in- 
dividuality and to receive a modifying influence 
from the class. 

10. To give opportunity for the student to 
do and to be rather than merely to know, by 
thinking, reasoning, judging, and making de- 
cisions. 

77. How My Classes in History Are Conducted 

Often the assignment is given in the form 
of a problem with references, but if no suitable 
problem can be found in the lesson for the day, 
the assignment is made as follows: 

The lesson is divided into two or three parts 
and a leader is assigned for each part. The 
duty of each leader is to outline his part of 
the lesson, prepare questions and gather out- 
side information pertaining to every subdivi- 
sion of his outline and bearing on all the 
questions he has prepared. 

In the recitation, from such an assignment, 
the leaders who have made special preparation 
(as given in the preceding paragraph) are re- 



REQUIRED SUBJECTS: HISTORY 155 

quested to question the class just as the teacher 
would. Volunteers are not called upon until 
two other pupils have attempted to answer the 
question. If the two students do not satisfy 
the leader and the other students, volunteers 
are called upon to correct any errors or to give 
additional information. 

The members of the class are allowed to ask 
any questions not previously made clear or they 
may present new questions. Then volunteers 
present new material based on collateral read- 
ing. The leader finally offers his additional in- 
formation. In case all the important points 
are not brought out clearly, the teacher asks 
his questions in order to emphasize those es- 
sentials. 

The new plan tends to make the students 
active, happy, earnest, hard-working, enthu- 
siastic, and democratic. 

The Socialized Recitation is *'an example of 
true democracy, development of all, through 
all, under the leadership of the best students'' 
and the teacher,^ 

' Report to the Seattle High School History Teachers. 



156 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 

Conversations and discussions are trans- 
ferred to the class circle. Discussions, ques- 
tions, criticisms are between pupils with the 
teacher only occasionally drawn in. There is 
quite a contrast between this plan and the old, 
when the recitation was always between teacher 
and some pupil. 

The teacher is a guide and does not do the 
reciting for the class. He encourages both 
freedom and desire to offer additional facts or 
to make inquiry concerning points discussed. 
Most of the corrections are noticed and dis- 
cussed by the pupils. In this phase of the work, 
the students are advised to make constructive, 
rather than destructive criticisms. 

If the students allow misstatements of facts 
to go unchallenged, or if they permit unsup- 
ported expression of personal opinion to escape, 
the teacher's work is evident: He corrects 
errors, criticises, and supplements the work of 
the students. However, he takes part only when 
necessary. Generally the teacher merely di- 
rects the work, counsels with the pupils, advises 



REQUIRED SUBJECTS: HISTORY 157 

and leads, without dominating and suppressing 
the physical and mental life within the room. 

It has been said that the new plan takes time. 
**Yes, training, development, growth, always 
take time. A fence can be built around a school 
in one day by a large force of men, but if a 
hedge is to be grown, it may require years. 
Mushrooms attain their full power in a night, 
oaks require decades."^ 

In nearly every class there are at least a few 
students having initiative who show good judg- 
ment and ability in analyzing subject-matter, 
general principles and their organic relations 
and who express thought in a clear and con- 
vincing manner. One of such qualifications is ap- 
pointed secretary. After each discussion on an 
important topic the secretary is requested to 
present the essentials and to state the main 
conclusions, or announce the desirability of 
further investigation. 

Often, when some important question arises 
which cannot be settled by the students at the 

'J. p. Zimmers, TeacMng Boys and Girls How to Study. 
The Parker Educational Co., Madison, Wisconsin. 1918. 



158 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 

time, the class is given a few days — sometimes 
longer — for study and research. Last year, for 
example, in discussing the government of Eng- 
land one boy said that he had heard that the 
English government is more democratic than 
our own. The members of the class immediately 
took sides in a discussion which followed. As 
they were unable to convince each other, they 
decided to have a debate on the question. 
Nearly every member of the class spent a half- 
hour or so about every day for two weeks study- 
ing in order to get * * evidence ^ * to prove or dis- 
prove that the American government is more 
democratic than the English government. And 
if the study of government is important, who 
will say that the time was not profitably spent 
in investigating the working of two of the most 
democratic governments in the world? 

in. The Problem Method and the Socialized 

Recitation'^ 

Dr. William T. Bawden of the United States 
Bureau of Education suggested that a state- 
•By a High School Student — Miss Marian Tworoger. 



REQUIRED SUBJECTS: HISTORY 159 

ment of the types of problems selected for dis- 
cussion by the students, be presented together 
with an analysis of one or two problems with 
statements as to just how the students handled 
the parts assigned to them. The following will, 
it is hoped, fulfill these requests. The problems 
given below are just a few of the many studied 
in the history course. 

1. Prove that James I tried to hinder the 
growth of Democracy. 

2. Prove that the Constitution provides for 
careful and deliberate legislation. 

3. Prove that Arbitration has already been 
of great value in settling disputes. 

4. Prove that the time from 1783 to 1789 was 
the ** Critical Period'' in American history. 

6. Prove that the American government is 
more democratic than the English government. 

6. Prove that the Versailles peace conference 
(1919) was more progressive than the Congress 
of Vienna (1814-1815). 

The problem selected for analysis was studied 
in connection with the making of the Con- 
stitution. 



160 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 

Text; Muzzey's ''American History." 
Chapter VI, Pages 159-183. 

Collateral Reading: 

Jolin Fiske, The Critical Period in American 
History. 

Bassett, a Short History of the United States. 

McLaughlin, The Confederation and the Con- 
stitution. 

Eroosevelt, Winning of the West, and other 
references given at the end of the chapter. 

Our class spent three days in considering the 
problem: ^^ Prove that the National Convention 
of 1787 solved the difficulties existing under the 
Articles of Confederation by giving the people 
of the United States the Constitution.'' When 
the problem was assigned, the class discussed 
it and found that it could be divided into five 
parts, namely, 1 — old conditions, 2 — defects of 
the confederation, 3 — the problem, what to do, 
4 — the solution, what happened, 5 — favorable 
results. Each of these points was assigned to 
one or more of the students, who made a special 
study of it, and in the recitation the following 
day, each in turn took the floor and questioned 



REQUIRED SUBJECTS: HISTORY 161 

tlie class upon his point, and acted as leader 
during the ensuing discussion, and finally, pre- 
sented to the class the material gained through 
his collateral reading. 

Under the first point — old conditions — ^we 
discussed the conditions which made the colon- 
ists attempt some form of union, the early 
attempts at union, and the confederation. In 
considering the second part — the defects of the 
confederation — ^it was brought out that under 
the Articles of Confederation, Congress con- 
sisted of only one house, in which all the states 
had an equal number of votes. The students 
further emphasized the idea that this congress 
was based on the representation of the states 
rather than the people ; the government had no 
executive or judicial departments; and the 
Congress had little executive power; e.g., it 
could make treaties but could not compel the 
states to obey them ; could ap{)ortion taxes, but 
could not collect them. ** Congress could advise, 
request and implore, but could not command." 
We showed that as the Articles of Confedera- 
tion could be amended only by a unanimous 



162 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 

vote of the states, it was impossible to remedy 
these defects, so we took up the third point, the 
problem — what to do. Under this heading we 
discussed the problems which confronted the 
makers of the Constitution : 

The Virginia and New Jersey plans, the 
slavery question, the question of taxes, the 
representation of negroes, the control of com- 
merce, and the other difficulties which had to 
be solved by the Constitutional Convention. 
Fourth, the solution — ^what happened, was a 
discussion of the constitution as finally adopted, 
bringing out particularly the compromises 
reached between the various factions, such as 
those concerning the representation of large and 
small states, the representation of negroes, the 
abolition of the slave trade, and the control of 
commerce. 

We showed that: 

1. (a) Small states were afraid of being 
overpowered by large ones. This difficulty was 
overcome by giving them equal representation 
in the Senate. 

(b) In the Continental Congress only the 



REQUIRED SUBJECTS: HISTORY 163 

states, not the people, had been represented. 
The rights of the people were now provided 
for in the House of Eepresentatives, and to 
pacify the large states, representation was to 
be according to population. 

2. (a) In apportioning taxation and deciding 
representation, five negroes were to be counted 
as equal to three white people. 

3. (a) Commercial questions were to be de- 
cided in Congress by majority vote instead of 
two-thirds vote. (This was a concession to the 
North.) 

(b) The slave trade was to continue without 
interference for twenty years. (This was a 
concession to the South.) 

Under the fifth heading — favorable results, 
we showed that the Constitution did solve the 
difficulties existing under the Confederation, 
because it provided the necessary centralization 
lacking in the Confederation, thereby giving us 
a real national government, rather than a mere 
confederation of states. It created executive 
and judicial departments, and gave Congress 



164' EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 

definite powers, with proper authority to exer- 
cise them. 

It gave a Congress made up of two houses, 
the Senate, representing the States, and the 
House of Eepresentatives, the people. 

It gave Congress full power of taxation, 
power to regulate trade, control foreign com- 
merce, and levy duties. 

It gave equal rights to all citizens in all the 
states. The convention of 1787 created a con- 
stitution which has stood successfully the test 
of a century, and is still the supreme law of one 
of the most civilized nations of the world. 

By taking the problem up in this manner each 
member of the class is required to do consider- 
able outside research work, and by pooling the 
information thus obtained, the pupils gain a 
much wider knowledge of the subject than 
would be possible if each attempted to cover 
the entire field for himself. 



REQUIRED SUBJECTS: HISTORY 165 

IV. 'An Example of a Project in Modern 

History^ 

Problem : Prove that tlie Eenaissance was a 
period of tremendous change in Europe from 
the middle of the fourteenth century to the end 
of the sixteenth in all the realms of human 
activity, especially in painting, sculpture, archi- 
tecture, language, literature, science, invention, 
discovery, education, and religion. 

Time : We devoted eight days to this problem. 

Texts: 1. West's Modern World (Pages 310- 
324). 

2. Webster's Early European History (Pages 
589-642). 

Eef erences : 

1. Hayes, Modern Europe, Vol. I. 

2. Field, Study of the Eenaissance. 

3. Hulme, Eenaissance and Eeformation. 

4. Hudson, Story of the Eenaissance. 

5. Burckhart, Civilization of the Eenaissance. 

6. Encyclopedia : Brittanica or International. 

*By two tdgh school students— Miriam Luten and Ade- 
laide Brown. 



166 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 

7. Further References see end of Chapter V 
of Hayes, Modern Europe, Vol. I, pp. 201-203. 

In the study and discussion of early modern 
history many problems arise of interest to the 
pupils. The period of the Renaissance, since 
it influenced later history to such a great extent, 
is very important. 

The problem on this period of history as 
given to the class to develop was: Prove that 
the Renaissance was a period of tremendous 
change in Europe from the middle of the four- 
teenth century to the end of the sixteenth, in 
all realms of human activity. 

In discussing the problem the class agreed 
that the important changes of the period ap- 
peared in painting, sculpture, architecture, 
language, literature, science, invention, dis- 
covery, education, and religion. 

We were given time to consider the possibili- 
ties of each subject and then choose the one 
that was best suited to our own interests. Be- 
sides the general references given on the pre- 
ceding page each student used special references 
dealing with his particular problem. 



REQUIRED SUBJECTS: HISTORY 167 

The class discussion of the problem extended 
over eight lessons. The problem of the first 
lesson was: Prove that there was a revival of 
painting during the Eenaissance. In doing this 
we contrasted the painting of the Middle Ages 
with that of the Eenaissance. Throughout the 
lesson, we followed this outline of the problem : 
1 — Old Conditions, 2 — Defects of Old Condi- 
tions, 3 — Problem to be solved, 4 — Events, or 
what happened, 5 — Favorable or Unfavorable 
Eesults. 

In the recitation, Laura first told about the 
Art of the Middle Ages. She stated that nearly 
all the paintings were frescoes done directly 
on the plaster walls, and that primarily, their 
purpose was not beauty, but rather to help save 
the soul of the beholder.^ Florence developed 
the second point, the defects. She explained 
that these early paintings were imitations of 
Byzantine mosaics and enamels ; that they were 
all highly conventionalized and with strict ad- 
herence to tradition; that they showed little 
knowledge of anatomy, proportion, perspective, 

"E. M. Hulme, Renaissance and Reformation, p. 116. 



168 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 

or distance. Harold volunteered information 
on their symbolic character, how a clasped 
hand, two raised fingers, the color of the gar- 
ments, a bunch of keys, a sword, all had a 
specific part in making the meaning of the pic- 
ture evident at a glance. John dealt with the 
third part, the problem to be solved. He 
showed the class how the old narrow concep- 
tion of painting was at variance with the new 
humanistic movement which was springing up. 
He pointed out how the new interest in classic 
literature, architecture, and sculpture, could 
not help but extend to painters and make them 
try to raise their art with the other arts. 
Nearly all the pupils contributed facts about 
the fourth point, the events, or rather work ac- 
complished, Louise named Giotto as the first 
artist to cast aside the old binding traditions 
and to infuse life into his paintings and to give 
them an air of reality. She told how he utilized 
arrangement, scenery, buildings and gesture to 
bring this about. Other students made con- 
tributions pertaining to the chief characteristics 
of the works of one or more of the famous 



REQUIRED SUBJECTS: HISTORY 169 

painters : Leonardo Da Vinci, Michael Angelo, 
Eaphael, Titian, Del Sarto, Holbein, Rubens, 
[Van Dyck, and Eembrandt, and suggested how 
they contributed to the Renaissance. At the 
close of the period, Adelaide spoke on the fifth 
division, the results^ and summed up the value 
of these painters to the world as founders of 
our principles and examples of the highest art. 

In a similar way we handled the problems of 
all of the lessons. 

The problem of the second lesson was : Prove 
that there was a revival of sculpture during the 
Renaissance. In developing the problem we 
compared the sculpture of the Renaissance with 
that of the Middle Ages. We showed that the 
great sculptors of the later period, Pisano, 
Ghiberti, Brunelleschi, Donatello, Delia Robbia, 
Sansovina and Michael Angelo contributed 
much to the Renaissance. 

In the third lesson we proved that there was 
a revival of architecture during the Renaissance 
period. We proved by referring to the works 
of Pisano, Brunelleschi, Alberti, Bramante, 
Michael Angelo, and Palladio that the archite^- 



170 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 

ture was distinctly different from the Gothic 
style of the previous period. 

To prove that there was a revival of language 
and literature during the Renaissance was the 
problem of the fourth lesson. The remarkable 
change from the literature of the Middle Ages 
we showed began with Dante (1265-1321) and 
included the work of Petrarch, Boccaccio, Lang- 
land, Froissart, Chaucer, Chrysoloras, Valla, 
Eeuchlin, Colet, Erasmus, Machiavelli, Von 
Hutten, Montaigne, Cervantes, Francis Bacon 
and Shakespeare. In literature we showed the 
reversion from the study of the dull writings 
of the schoolmen to the brilliant productions 
of the Greek and Roman authors. The class 
devoted much time to the consideration of the 
development of the modern languages and 
literature. 

We proved in the fifth lesson that there was 
a revival of science and invention during the 
Renaissance. That much progress was made 
in science was shown by discussing the work 
of such men as Roger Bacon, Gutenberg, 
Lorentius Valla, Behaim, Copernicus, Servetus, 



REQUIRED SUBJECTS: HISTORY 171 

Francis Bacon, Galileo, Kepler, Harvey, and 
Newton. We also showed how valuable the 
contributions of these men were to later history. 
The members of the class were especially in- 
terested in the inventions : printing, gunpowder, 
the compass, and the telescope and their effect 
on civilization. 

The problem of the sixth lesson was : Prove 
that the Eenaissance was an age of discovery 
and exploration. We pointed out the im- 
portance of the discoveries and explorations of 
such men as Marco Polo, Prince Henry the 
Navigator, Diaz, Da Gama, Columbus, Cabot, 
Vespuccius, Pizzaro, Balboa, Magellan, Cortez, 
Cartier, Hudson, Ealeigh, Champlain, De Soto, 
Ponce De Leon, telling of the influence of the 
Renaissance period and why discoveries were 
not made before this time. 

Prove that there was a revival of education 
during the Eenaissance, was the problem of 
the seventh lesson. We contrasted the educa- 
tion of the Middle Ages with that of the Eenais- 
sance period. In doing so, we emphasized 
especially the views and accomplishments of 



172 jjJBUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 

Qhrysoloras, Eeuchlin, Erasmus, Colet, Sturm, 
Ascham, Luther, Melanchthon, Zwingli, Calvin, 
Loyola, Eabelais, Mulcaster, Montaigne, and 
Francis Bacon. 

In the last lesson we proved that a revival 
of religion occurred during the Eenaissance. 
We discussed men whose writings and doctrines 
contributed to the Eeformation; among those 
considered were John Wyclif, John Tauler, 
John Huss, Thomas a Kempis, John Goch, John 
Wessel, Savonarola, Lorentius Valla, Erasmus, 
John Colet, Sir Thomas More, William Tyn- 
dale, Martin Luther, Ulrich Zwingli, Ignatius 
Loyola, John Calvin, Thomas Cranmer and 
John Knox. 

Every lesson was discussed very enthusiast- 
ically by all the members of the class. 

F. The 'Socialised Recitation from the Stu- 
dents^ Standpoint 

We are beginning to-day a new era. Free- 
dom has become the motto of the world; free- 

'By a High School Student — Miss Violet Harrison. 



REQUIRED SUBJECTS: HISTORY 173 

dom from old tyrannies, freedom of thonglit, 
in fact true freedom. 

Surely when new and efficient methods are 
replacing the old in so many things a change 
in school methods which would encourage 
greater freedom of thought on the part of the 
pupil deserves earnest consideration. 

The socialized recitation gives to the student 
freedom of thought and requires from him 
greater efficiency. It also stimulates his initia- 
tive and originality. 

In my class in modern history a critic is ap- 
pointed to preside. The chairman works with 
the teacher to see that all errors are corrected 
and all important facts are emphasized. 

In the assignment the lesson is divided into 
two or three parts, and a leader is assigned by 
the teacher for each part. The duty of the 
leader is to outline his part of the lesson, pre- 
pare questions, and to gather outside informa- 
tion pertaining to his subject. 

When the class meets the following day the 
leaders are called to question the class in their 
order. Two pupils are appointed by the leader 



174 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 

to answer every question. If they fail, or the 
pupils are not satisfied, volunteers are called 
to correct any errors or give additional in- 
formation. 

As a student, the socialized recitation appeals 
to me because the former dullness and dryness 
of the period is eliminated and it becomes a 
period of mental activity. This change comes 
from the fact that the pupils are interested in 
their work rather than in the grade they will 
receive. 

By the question and answer method little real 
interest in the subject was aroused in the pupils. 
It was too monotonous. A class conducted ac- 
cording to our plan is not monotonous, because 
each day something new and interesting is 
brought to the pupils ' attention. 

Questions are brought before the class and 
often problems arise from them for the stu- 
dents to discuss. 

Class discussion converts the recitation 
period into one of hard and quick thinking, in 
which the student does his best studying under 
the stimulus of his fellow students and teacher. 



REQUIRED SUBJECTS: HISTORY 175 

The text-book serves as an outline of topics to 
be considered. 

The pupils, to prove their points, must neces- 
sarily read outside information, and this they 
are willing to do because they have the proper 
incentive. Questions or suggestions put the stu- 
dent into action. The teacher is there to formu- 
late problems, not to supply answers before 
the questions have been raised within the 
learner's mind. 

Where there is no interest in a subject ; where 
there is no question in the student's mind, there 
can be no searching for an answer. 

Where there is no problem there is no occa- 
sion for the mind to think hard. The problems 
we discuss are not only those given by the 
teacher, but those coming from the pupils and 
therefore interesting to them. 

The student's viewpoint is broadened; the 
teacher and the text-books are not the only 
authorities. Through class discussions the 
opinions of the other students are heard and 
the pupils learn by experience to form opin- 



176 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 

ions of their own, regarding tlie problems 
brought up. 

The socialized recitation is one of expression 
rather than repression. The student is given 
the opportunity to express himself without the 
restraint usually felt in classes. 

The socialized recitation is more democratic 
than the old method as the students help in 
governing, not depending on one person, the 
teacher. 

As the class must work together to gain the 
desired results, co-operation becomes a part of 
the training. Instead of each pupil working 
solely for his own benefit each works for the 
benefit of the whole class. 

Because the students feel that the respon- 
sibility rests on them rather than the teacher, 
they become more self-assured and this en- 
courages democratic control and management. 

Progress is made by considering new ideas. 
A student under the socialized recitation must 
make progress not only in the subject, but also 
along other lines. 

The student's interests are widened, ne^ 



REQUIRED SUBJECTS: HISTORY 177 

paths of knowledge open for him. He is started 
thinking along new lines and awakened to bet- 
ter things. 

The business world of to-day is looking for 
men and women with initiative and originality. 
The socialized recitation stimulates both of 
these qualities in the students. 

It is interesting to note what the pupils think 
of the new plan of recitation. The following 
comments were selected from J. P. Zimmer's 
monograph, Teaching Boys and Girls How to 
Study: 

''It makes us use our minds during the re- 
citation." 

**It makes me study more.'^ 

''It teaches me to think for myself.'* 

"I get more out of my lesson.'' 

"We learn to ask questions that have some 
meaning." 

"Pupils find out things for themselves." 

"It teaches me to find the most important 
things." 

"I like to hear the things others have read 
in other books." 



178 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 

**It helps me to be accurate." 

*'It makes me use all the time I have." 

'*I learn to use good English." 

**I am glad to hear things that others get 
out of a lesson that I did not get. ' ^ 

**This method teaches me to think, to use my 
brain, to answer and to ask questions." 

**This method of teaching is very good, as 
it makes me think or learn how to study and 
also to talk to the class. It will not be so hard 
to learn next year's work." 

**I like this system of teaching because the 
lessons are more interesting and I learn many 
more things from the questions the other pupils 
ask, and every child gets an equal chance." 

**This method of teaching has taught me to 
think and reason for myself. The children's 
questions can get at certain parts of the studies 
that learned people do not always think of." 

*'It makes us think and reason. I cannot 
criticise our new way and I hope they keep it. 
The old way we had kept the bright children 
busy, while the others sat there and naturally 
had low reports. I think some children do not 



REQUIRED SUBJECTS: HISTORY 179 

understand what they read, but get the mean- 
ing by our new method." 

**If you do not know what anything means 
you have to ask questions in order to learn the 
answer. If a pupil is asked a question, he must 
think very hard to answer it. If you do not 
know what the word means you have to look 
it up in the dictionary or ask the class. I think 
it helps me a great deal." 

**The following statement was written by a 
boy who had been in the local schools only one 
week."® 

**I like this method of recitation because it 
gives every pupil a chance to say something. 
It helps me when I am reciting because I would 
much rather have the pupils correct me than 
the teacher, and it shows me my mistakes. I 
have been in nine different schools besides this 
one and had many different methods, but this 
is the best. I have had poorer deportment than 
here as a result of the teachers' asking and 
correcting everything." 

» J. p. Zimmers, Teaching Boys and Girls How to Study, 
pp. 51-52. 



180 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 

VI . What Are the Advantages of the Socialized 

Recitation? 

To think, to become responsible, to be inter- 
ested, to be aroused, to want to put forth effort, 
to do something for others, to feel their part 
in the recitation — this social consciousness is 
stimulated by the new plan of recitation.® Many 
students tell me that *4t does away with the 
old monotony." ''It makes the schoolroom real, 
life-like and natural. The students become 
members of a working community which adopt 
the principles of character and good citizenship 
as the standard of living and working. ''^® 
^, It is simply a way of giving the self-reliance 
and initiative within a group the maximum 
opportunity to develop. This form of recita- 
tion arouses more interest, more sense of co- 
operation between the students and between the 
teacher and the students and a wider freedom 
of self-expression than does the ordinary reci- 
tation. Responsibility and leadership become 

•William Whitney, The Socialized Recitation. 
" Ibid. 



REQUIRED SUBJECTS: HISTORY 181 

pleasurable realities in boys and girls who feel 
themselves expanding under its burdens. The 
spirit of the group is more friendly and earnest. 
But the greatest of all the advantages is the 
training given the student in how to study, how 
to think, and how to express thought.^^ It gives 
a chance for analysis, for comparison, for 
logical reasoning, for reflective judgment, and 
for oral expression.^^ 

Frank Herbert Palmer says that the plan and 
its details are so full of interest, so dynamic, 
so fruitful of good to the average pupil, so 
fascinating as a method of teaching that every 
instructor will find it worthy of serious con- 
sideration. This method of recitation makes the 
pupil think for himself. Instead of being re- 
quired to listen most of the time to the teacher 
and to remember what he has expressed, the 
pupil himself becomes an investigator, and hav- 
ing found out for himself, expresses his 
thoughts in the recitation. He is cross-ques- 



"A. S. Beatman, The Social Recitation. Publislied by 
"The Independent." 
"Report to the Seattle High School History Teachers. 



182 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 

tioned by the class and made to defend liis posi- 
tion. The doing of these things makes him 
careful and accurate. It cultivates habits of 
expression. It makes him confident. It de- 
velops leadership. Graduates of elementary 
schools where this method is followed usually 
get all the best honors and class leadership 
offices in the high schools which they afterward 
enter." The plan solves the question of order 
and discipline. Disorder is usually the result 
of idleness and inattention. These do not exist 
where the socialized recitation plan is followed. 
After reviewing the answers to a questionnaire 
pertaining to methods employed by teachers of 
history, civics, and economics in Seattle High 
Schools, Superintendent Frank B. Cooper 
stated that the teachers agree that * * the method 
is necessary to arouse interest and to encourage 
intelligent thinking, an essential for citizenship 
in a democracy; to develop initiative and fair- 
mindedness; to teach the American way of 
arriving at a conclusion; to get a clear under- 

" Editor Frank H. Palmer in "Education" for January, 
1919. 



REQUIRED SUBJECTS: HISTORY 183 

standing of problems; to cnltivate a sense of 
truth and a realization of the need of it; to 
establish the habit of consulting authorities and 
of speaking the truth; to cultivate a sense of 
knowing different views in arriving at conclu- 
sions based on a broad knowledge; because 
pupils learn not to swallow blindly one author- 
ity; because the test of authority is investiga- 
tion; because the teacher is not in a class to 
impose personal opinions; because wrong per- 
sonal views are corrected ; because hearsay evi- 
dence is discredited." 

Superintendent Cooper said further: **It 
tends to induce the thinking habit, to encourage 
the weighing of opinions, and a comparison of 
facts before decision. It aims to blaze the way 
to just conclusions, rather than to arrive at 
conclusions, for there are numerous problems 
studied as to which satisfactory conclusions 
have not yet been reached. My only comment 
upon these returns is that this city is highly 
fortunate in being served by a body of teachers 
which shows the intelligence, wisdom and fine 
spirit of service and patriotism that are dis- 



184 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 

closed in the answers to these questions.*' The 
report was adopted. 

Dr. William T. Whitney in his mongraph en- 
titled the Socialized Eecitation/* maintains that 
**the recitation period should be devoted to 
training the student, rather than instructing 
the student. The student will get the instruc- 
tion of necessity, if the material or content of 
instruction is placed at his disposal in such a 
way that he may, as a worker, use it in practic- 
ing good speech, good manners, thinking, doing, 
co-operating and building up habits that be- 
come right moral action." 

'* Morality does not consist of abstract 
thoughts. Good citizenship does not consist of 
talk about ideals. The highest morality and 
best citizenship is in doing an honest piece of 
work with a sincere motive and purpose. 

**For the mechanic, for the student, morality 
and citizenship mean doing effectively and effi- 
ciently, with right motives the thing that should 
be done. This may be termed a working 

"W. T. Whitney, The Socialized Recitation, A. S. Barnes 
Co., N. Y. 



REQUIRED SUBJECTS: HISTORY 185 

morality, but it is the type of moral training 
most needed to-day. 

**No opportunity is provided in the ordinary 
recitation for the student to receive that train- 
ing in thought, in courtesy, in manners and 
practical morals, in language and power of 
adaptability, which constitutes the valuable 
part of the recitation. The Socialized Recita- 
tion admits of all these elements which are im- 
perative if the student is to be educated. 

**The ordinary recitation means an artificial 
and unnatural way of mentally digesting in- 
formation and subject-matter. The question 
and answer method as well as the so-called de- 
velopment method seldom touches the student's 
real interest. It is evident also that in the 
ordinary recitation no plan or preparation is 
made for the student to take a conversatidnal 
interest in the work. He is confined and re- 
stricted to the few thoughts that the teacher 
may have in mind which may or may not be 
the student's viewpoint and which may in no 
sense be educational so far as the student is 
concerned. ' ' 



186 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 

Under tlie old plan of recitation the students 
relied too much upon the teacher. They de- 
pended on him. Was there anything to be 
done? Was there any responsibility to be as- 
sumed? Was there any disorder to be sup- 
pressed? Was there any unfavorable condi- 
tions to be attended to? The teacher was the 
one to look after all such matters. The pupils 
felt no responsibility resting upon them. The 
only part the pupils played was to repeat the 
facts learned, to rehearse the lesson. 

**The Socialized Eecitation gives a better 
opportunity for the teacher to study and know 
the individual pupil. The recitation period be- 
comes an active period of pupil responsibility, 
and no longer a listening period. The student 
becomes a doer and not a passive listener. The 
class is the active part of the recitation, not 
the teacher. If there are cases of discipline, 
the pride and honor of the class will help settle 
these. If there are members of the class whose 
conduct, speech, actions and manners, are detri- 
mental to good citizenship, the honor and re- 
spect of the class will do much to remedy that. 



REQUIEED SUBJECTS: HISTORY 187 

**The Socialized Eecitation avoids the artifi- 
cial conditions of the classroom and recitation. 
The subject-matter is a means for the expres- 
sion of the student's own ideas and to develop 
his power. The subject-matter of a given les- 
son is so planned by the teacher that it becomes 
material to be used by the student in creating 
experiences, and in giving and receiving im- 
pressions. Thus to a very large degree drill 
is eliminated, but the facts are nevertheless fixed, 
because of the concrete situation in which the 
student uses them." 

After commenting on an article pertaining to 
the Socialized Recitation by Lotta A. Clark en- 
titled ** A Good Way to Teach History'' (School 
Review, April, 1909) Dr. Colvin A. Scott makes 
this cogent statement: **Such an organization 
of work consists in something much more than 
a mere change of method. Methods are only 
means for carrying out a given plan or aim. 
What is proposed here is to allow the public, 
and particularly that part of it the school is 
directly in contact with, i.e., the pupils, to help 
to shape the content of the course of study in 



188 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 

Barmony with their most lively and productive 
interests. This will not exclude the full im- 
pingement of the best of the teacher's contribu- 
tion. He will probably find a greater oppor- 
tunity than ever before to impress his best 
ideas upon his pupils. They become more will- 
ing to hear and to co-operate with him when he 
has already shown his willingness to co-operate 
with them."^® 
Questions on Social Phases of the Eecitation. 

1. Do the students do most of the talking? 

2. Do the students ask questions of each 
other? 

3. Are the students arranged during the reci- 
tation period so as to be able to see each other? 

4. Is it a habit of the student to speak to 
all the members of the group, rather than to 
the teacher? 

5. Are the questions which the teacher and 
the students ask, such as to stimulate discussion 
among the pupils? 

6. Do the students feel that it is worth while 

"C. H. Johnson, Modem High School, pp. 240-244. 



REQUIRED SUBJECTS: HISTORY 189 

to help each other and do they commonly feel 
responsible for the progress of the class f 

7, Do the students answer questions which 
are put by the teacher or by the other students 
after careful thought, and are they still willing 
to defend their positions against the sugges- 
tions of doubt which may be expressed by the 
other pupils? ^ 



References'^^ 
Some of G, S, EalVs Writings 

1. Adolescence: Its Psychology and Its Ee- 
lations to Physiology, Anthropology, Sociology, 
Sex, Crime, Eeligion and Education. Two 
monumental and epoch-making volumes. D. 
Appleton & Company, 1904. 

2. Educational Problems. In this work, con- 

"Note: A complete biblography of Dr. Hall's Writings 
may be found in L. N. Wilson's Life of G. Stanley HaU, 
G. E. Stechert & Co., N. Y., 1914 (pp. 119-144). G. E. 
Partridge's Genetic Philosophy of Education (pp. 383-394), 
contains a bibliography of G. S. Hall's Writings to 1912. 



190 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 

sisting of two ponderous and comprehensive 
volumes, Dr. Hall discusses educational prob- 
lems from the point of view of genetic psy- 
chology and the needs of society. D. Appleton, 
1911. 

3. Youth: Its Education, Regimen and 
Hygiene. Selections from *' Adolescence." 
** Youth," contains besides other valuable dis- 
cussions, chapters on sports, games, and plays, 
the education of girls, and biographies of 
adolescents. D. Appleton, 1904. 

4. Aspects of Child Life and Education. This 
book of 326 pages deals with the contents of 
children's minds, day dreams, curiosity, dolls, 
collecting, ownership, fetishism, boy life forty 
years ago, and other topics. Ginn & Co., Bos- 
ton, 1907. 

5. The Ideal School as Based on Child Study. 
The Forum, Sept., 1901, Vol. XXXII, pp. 24-39. 
Also Proceedings of the National Education 
Association, 1901, pp. 475-488. See Dr. Hall's 
Introduction to P. W. Search's book, *^An Ideal 
School." D. Appleton, 1901. 



REQUIRED SUBJECTS: HISTORY 191 

6. How Far is the Present High School and 
Early College Training Adapted to the Nature 
and Needs of Adolescents? Official Eeport of 
the 16th Annual Meeting of the N. E. Ass'n of 
Colleges and Secondary Schools, pp. 72-104. 
Also in School Eeview, Dec, 1901. 

7. The High School as the People's College. 
Proceedings of the Department of Superinten- 
dence, National Education Association, Chicago, 
Feb. 27, 1902. Cf. The High School as the 
People's College Versus the Fitting School'. 
Ped. Sem., March, 1902, Vol. IX, pp. 63-73. 

8. Some Criticisms of High School Physics 
and Manual Training and Mechanic Arts High 
Schools with Suggested Correlations. Ped. 
Sem., June, 1902, Vol. IX, pp. 193-204. See also 
Adolescents and High School English, Latin 
and Algebra. Ped. Sem., March, 1902, Vol. IX, 
pp. 92-105. 

9. The Genetic Philosophy of Education. 
This is the only summary of G. Stanley HalPs 
pedagogic doctrine. In this work Dr. Partridge 
attempted to epitomize President Hall's books 



192 EDUCATION DimiNG ADOLESCENCE 

and about 300 of his magazine articles. He has 
done an enviable piece of work. This book is 
of inestimable valne to every teacher. Sturgis 
& Walton Company, 1912. 400 pages. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY OF BOOKS AND ARTICLES BY 
OTHER AUTHORITIES 

1. Andrews, F. F. The New Citizenship. Proceedings, 

National Education Association, 1915, pp. 702-705. 

2. Anderson, R. E. A Preliminary Study of the Read- 

ing Tastes of High School Pupils. Ped. Sem., Dec, 
1912, Vol, XIX, pp. 438-460. 

3. Angell, J. R. New Requirements for Entrance and 

Graduation at the University of Chicago. School 
Review, Sept., 1911, Vol. XIX, No. 7, pp. 489-497. 

4. Avery, L. B. The Future High School. Proc. N. 

E. A., 1915, pp. 748-753. 

5. Bagley, W. C. The Professional Training of High 

School Teachers. Proc. N. E. A., 1912, pp. 686-691. 

6. Bagley, W. C. The Determination of Minimum Es- 

sentials in Elementary Geography and History. 
Yearbook, National Society for the Study of Educa- 
tion. Chicago, 1915, pp. 131-146. 

7. Baldwin, J. M. Mental Development in the Child 

and the Race. Macmillan Co., 1910. 

8. Balliet, T. M. Discussion of the Report of the 

Committee on Economy of Time in Elementary 
Education. Proc. N. E. A., 1915, pp. 410-415. 

193 



194 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 

9. Banks, L. A. Youth of Famous Americans. Metho- 
dist Book Company, 150 Fifth Avenue, New York. 

10. Barnes, M. S. Studies in Historical Method. D. C. 

Heath & Co., 1904. 

11. Bate, W. G. An Experiment in Teaching a Course 

in Elementary Sociology. School Review, May, 
1915, Vol. XXIII, pp. 331-340. (An outline of the 
course is given.) 

12. Betts, G. H. The Recitation. Houghton Mifflin Co., 

1910, New York. 

13. Blackmar, F. Elements of Sociology, Macmillan 

Co., 1906. 

14. Blairsdell, T. C. Should Colleges Admit High 

School Graduates without Regard to Subjects 
Studied in the High School? School and Society, 
March 11, 1916, Vol. Ill, No. 63, pp. 366-370. (In 
this article the author maintains that "ability to do 
college work can be attained during four years of 
study in high school without regard to the subjects 
pursued.'') 

15. Bloomfield, M. Youth, School and Vocation. Hough- 

ton Mififlin Co., New York, 1915. 

16. Bolton, F. E. Principles of Education. Charles 

Scribner's Sons, New York, 1910. 790 pages. The 
facts in this book have been admirably well selected, 
carefully organized, and forcibly stated by Dr. Bol- 
ton, who discusses pedagogy from the biological and 
psychological points of view. 

17. Bolton, F. E. Facts and Fictions Concerning Educa- 

tional Values. School Review, Feb., 1904, Vol. XII, 
p. 170-189. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY OF BOOKS AND ARTICLES 195 

18. Bolton, F. E. What is the True Function of the 

Free Public High School. Published by the North- 
western University, 1913. Proceedings of National 
Conference of Secondary Education. 

19. BosTWicK, A. E. The Twenty-seventh Annual Con- 

ference of Academies and High Schools in Relation 
with the University of Chicago. School Review, 
June, 1915, Vol. XXIII, pp. 394-405. 

20. Bowers, F. T. What Constitutes Preparation for 

College; a Layman's View. Education, Sept., 1911, 
Vol. XXXII, pp. 16-19. 

21. BouRNiE, H. E. The Teaching of History and Civics 

in the Elementary and Secondary School. Long- 
mans, Green & Co., New York, 1903. 

22. Beiggs, T. H. Secondary Education. Report of the 

Commissioner of Education, 1915, pp. 113-130. 

23. Brooks, S. D. School Document, No. 10, 1910, Boston 

Public Schools. 

24. Brooks, S. D. School Document, No. 11, 1911, Boston 

Public Schools. 

25. Brown, E. E. The Making of Our Middle Schools'. 

Longmans, Green & Co., 1910. (A comprehensive 
treatment of the history of secondary education.) 

26. Brown, J. F. The Training of Teachers for Sec- 

ondary Schools. Macmillan Co., N. Y., 1911. 

27. Brown, J. F. The American High School, Macmillan 

Co., 1909, N. Y., 462 pages. (An excellent text- 
book to use in teaching secondary education.) 



196 EDUCATION DUUlNG ADOLESCENCE 

28. Brown, J. S. Future Outlook and Possibilities of 

Secondary Education. Proc. N. E. A., 1915, pp. 
616-621. 

29. Brown, S. W. Some Experiments in Elementary 

School Organization. Proc. N. E. A., 1913, pp. 
458-463. 

30. Bryce, James. The Hindrances to Good Government. 

Yale University Press. 

31. Bunker, F. F. Reorganization of the Public School 

System, Bureau of Education, Washington, D. C. 
Bulletin, No. 8, 1916, 186 pages. 

32. Bunker, F. F. The Reorganization of the Schools of 

Berkeley. A Plan. Report to the Board of Educa- 
tion of Berkeley, California, Nov. 30, 1909. 

33. Bunker, F. F. The Better Articulation of the Parts 

of the Public School System. Educational Review, 
March, 1914, Vol. XLVII, pp. 249-269. 

34. Bunker, F. F. The Plan to Secure a Functional 

Articulation of the Parts of the Public School Sys- 
tem in Effect at Berkeley. (Chapter of a book in 
preparation.) 

35. BuRNHAM, W. H. The Study of Adolescence. Fed. 

Sem., 1891, June, Vol. I, No. 2, pp. 174-196. 

36. BuRNHAM, W. H. Child Study as the Basis of Peda- 

gogy. Proc. N. E. A., 1893, pp. 718-720. 

37. BuRNHAM, W. H. Education from the Genetic Point 

of View. Proc. N. E. A., 1005, pp. 727-734. 

38. BuRNHAM, W. H. The Group as a Stimulus to Men- 

tal Activity. Science N. S., Vol. XIII, pp. 761-766, 



BIBLIOGRAPHY OF BOOKS AND ARTICLES 197 

May 20, 1910. See quotation in Irving King's 
Education for Social Efficiency, p. 235. In another 
work, Social Aspects of Education (Maemillan Co., 
1912), Dr. King quotes several pages of Professor 
Bumham's article (pp. 358-363). 

39. BuENHAM, W. H. Hygiene of Adolescence. A 

Cyclopedia of Education edited by Paul Monroe 
with the assistance of Departmental editors, Vol. I, 
pp. 44-46, New York, 1911. (Dr. Bumham is De- 
partmental Editor of Hygiene.) 

40. BuENHAM, W. H. Suggestions from the Psychology 

of Adolescence. Report of the New England 
Association of Colleges and Preparatory Schools. 
School Review, Dec, 1897, Vol. V, pp. 652-666. 
(An explicit and forcible presentation of the spirit 
of the new education.) 

41. BuRNHAM, S. History in the Schools: A study of 

100 replies of students as to how they were taught 
history. Educational Review, May, 1904, Vol. 
XXVII, pp. 521-528. 

42."Bi7RR, G. L. What History ShalfWe" Teach? 'History 
Teacher's Magazine, Nov., 1914, pp. 283-287. 

43. Burr, G. L. Definition of the Field of Secondary 

History. History Teacher's Magazine, June, 1916, 
Vol. VII, pp. 201-202. (Papers by H. D. Foster, 
H. E. Bourne, M. McGill, E. M. Violette, J. Sullivan, 
C. Harford, J. E. Berringer, J. R. Sutton, appear 
in the same issue.) 

44. Burr, H. M. Studies in Adolescent Boyhood. Seminar 

Publishing Co., Springfield, Mass., 1910. 



198 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 

45. Butler, N. M. The Meaning of Education with Other 

Essays and Addresses. Maemillan Co., N. Y., 1905. 
230 pages. 

46. Caldwell, 0. W. The Influence of Prolonged and 

Carefully Directed Work. Proc. N. E. A., 1912, 
pp. 691-700. 

47. Capen, S. p. Higher Education. (See Entrance Re- 

quirements) Report of the Commissioner of Educa- 
tion, Department of the Interior, 1915, pp. 131-167. 

48. Chambers, W. G. Why Children Play. Proc. N. E. 

A., 1909, pp. 720-726. 

49. Chambers, W. G. The Evolution of Ideals. Ped. 

Sem., March, 1903, Vol. X, pp. 101-143. 

50. Chamberlain, A. F. The Teaching of English. Ped. 

Sem., June, 1902, Vol. IX, No. 2, pp. 161-170. 

51. Chapman, I. T. Obstacles to be Encountered in the 

EstabHshment of the Junior High School. Journal 
of Education (A. E. Winship, editor). May 18, 1916, 
Vol. LXXXIII, No. 20, pp. 538-541. 

52. Claparede. Experimental Pedagogy. Longmans, 

Green & Co., New York. 

53. Clark, L. A. A Good Way to Teach History. 

School Review, April, 1909, Vol. XVII, pp. 255-266. 
(The author tells how she "socialized" the recita- 
tions in history in one of the Boston high schools.) 

54. Claxton, p. p. R-^port of the Commissioner of 

Education, Department of Interior, 1915. 

55. Claxton, p. p. The Organization of High Schools 

into Junior and Senior Sections. Proc. N. E. A., 
1915, pp. 747-748. (Commissioner Claxton strongly 
commends the "Six-Three-Three Plan.") 



BIBLIOGRAPHY OF BOOKS AND ARTICLES 199 

56. Cole, T. R. Learning to Be a Schoolmaster. C. C. 

Bras, Publisher, Seattle, Wash. 

57. Cole, T. R. Segregation at the Broadway High 

School, Seattle. School Review, Oct., 1915, Vol. 
XXV, pp. 550-554. 

58. CoLviN, S. S. Learning Process. Macmillan Co., 

1911, N. Y. 

59. Committee of Seven. The Study of History in 

Schools. Report to the American Historical Associa- 
tion. Macmillan Company, 1900, N. Y. 

60. CONRADi, E. Latin in High School. Ped. Sem., 

March, 1905, Vol. XII, No. 12, pp. 1-27. 

61. COOKSON, C. W. The Ethical as the Essential in 

Training for Efficient Citizenship in a Democracy. 
High School Quarterly, April, 1916, Vol. IV, No. 3, 
pp. 209-216. 

62. CooLEy, E. G. The Part-time School. School and 

Society, Vol. Ill, No. 76, pp. 843-847. 

63. Cooper, F. B. Report on Methods of Instruction 

employed by teachers of History, Civics and 
Economics in Seattle High Schools. 

64. Crabtree, J. W. Personality in Supervision. Proc. 

N. E. A., 1915, pp. 516-519. 

65. Crabtree, J. W. Harmonizing Vocational and Cul- 

tural Education. Proc. N. E. A., 1914, pp. 384-385. 

66. CuBBERLEY, E. P. Changing Conceptions of Educa- 

tion. Houghton Mifflin Co., 1909. (One of the 
Riverside Educational Monographs, edited by Henry 
Suzzallo.) 



200 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 

67. CuBBERLET, E. P., and Others, Does the Present Trend 

toward Vocational Education Threaten Liberal Cul- 
ture? School Review, Sept., 1911, Vol. XIX, pp. 
454-488. 

68. CUBBERLEY, E. P. The Portland Surrey. A Text- 

book on City School Administration Based on a 
Concrete Study. World Book Co., N. Y., 1915. 
(Professor Cubberley was assisted by F. B. Dresslar, 
E. C. Elliot, J. H. Francis, F. E. Spaulding, L. M. 
Terman, and W. R. Tanner. See Chapter XI, 
Needed Reorganization and Expansions of the School 
System, pp. 250-279.) 

69. Curtis, H. S. Education through Play. Macmillan 

Co., 1915. 

70. Davis, C. 0. Realizable Educational Values in His- 

tory. History Teacher's Magazine, Vol. VI, pp. 
167-178. 

71. Davis, C. 0. High School Courses of Study. A 

constructive study Applied to New York City. 
World Book Co., 1914. 

72. Davis, C. 0. Reorganization of Secondary Educa- 

tion. Educational Review, Oct., 1911, Vol. XLII, 
pp. 270-300. 

73. Davis, C. 0. Guide to Methods and Observation in 

History Studies in High School Observation. Rand, 
McNaUy & Co., 1914. 

74. Davis, C. 0. Continuation Work in the High School. 

A chapter in Johnson and Others, The Modern High 
School, pp. 546-591. Charles Scribner's Sons, N. Y. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY OF BOOKS AND ARTICLES 201 

75. Davis, C. 0. Principles and Plans for Reorganizing 

Secondary Education. A chapter in Johnson and 
Others, High School Education, pp. 67-106. Charles 
Scribner's Sons, 1912. 

76. Davison, C. The Education of Charles Darwin. 

Educational Review, Feb., 1912, Vol. XLIII, No. 
2, pp. 125-133. 

77. Dealey, W. L. The Theoretical Gary. Ped. Sem., 

June, 1916, Vol. XXIII, No. 2, pp. 269-282. "This 
study is a digest of the Gary literature." 

78. Dewey, J. Democracy and Education. Macmillan 

Co., 1916, New York. 

79. Dewey, J. Schools of To-morrow. E. P. Dutton 

& Co., New York, 1915. "Almost every chapter 
gives descriptions of socialized school work." 

80. Dewtby, J. Interest and Effort in Education. 

Houghton Mifflin Co., New York. 

81. Dewey, J. The School and Society. N. Y. MeClure, 

Phillips & Co., 1900. 

82. Dewey, J. The School and Society. (Revised Edi- 

tion), 1915. The University of Chicago Press. 164 
pages. 

83. Dole, C. The American Citizen. D. C. Heath & Co., 

Boston. (This work "teaches civics, elementary 
economics, patriotism, and social responsibility.") 

84. Dunn, A. W. The Community and the Citizen. D. 

C. Heath & Co., Boston, 1910. 

85. Dutton, S. T. Social Phases of Education in the 

School and the Home, MacmiUan Co., New York, 
1899, pp. 257. 



202 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 

86. DuTTON and Snedden. The Administration of Public 

Education in the United States. Macmillan Co., 
N. Y., 1909, pp. 600. 

87. Earhart, L. B. Types of Teaching. Houghton 

Mifflin Co., 1915, New York. Ch. IX, Recitation 
Exercise, Ch. XI, Socializing Exercises, Ch. XIV, 
Training Pupils to Study. 

88. Eliot, C. W. Educational Reform (Essays and Ad- 

dresses). The Century Co., New York, 1905, pp. 418. 

89. Eliot, C. W. Education for Efficiency and the New 

Definition of the Cultivated Man. Houghton Mifflin 
Co., Boston, 1910. 

90. Eliot, C. W. Present Problems of Education. Educa- 

tional Review, March, 1914, Vol. XLVII, pp. 237- 
248. 

91. Eliot, C. W. Needed Changes in Secondary Educa- 

tion. U. S. Bureau of Education. Bulletin No. 10, 
1910, Washington, D. C. 

92. Eliot, C. W. Changes Needed in American Sec- 

ondary Education. School and Society, March 18, 
1916, Vol. Ill, No. 64, pp. 397-408. 

93. Elliot, E. C. Instruction: Its Organization and 

Control. A chapter in Johnson and Others, High 
School Education, pp. 106-128. Charles Scribner*s 
Sons, 1914, N. Y. 

94. Ellwood, C. a. The Sociological Basis of the Science 

of Education. Education, Nov., 1911, Vol. XXXII, 
pp. 133-140. 

95. Ellwood, C. A. Sociology and Modem Social Prob- 

lems. American Book Co., 1911, N. Y. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY OF BOOKS AND ARTICLES 203 

96. Fenwick, a. M. a Modem City's High School Sys- 

tern. School Review, Feb., 1916, Vol. XXIV, pp. 
116-129. 

97. Fish, E. V. The Boy and Girl; The Period of 

Adolescence. A. H. Crist Co., Cooperstown, N. Y., 
1912. 

98. Flexner, a. a Modem School. General Education 

Board, New York City. 

99. FORBUSH, W. B. The Coming Generation. D. Apple- 

ton & Co., N. Y., 1912. 
100. Foster, W. T. Reed College. School Review, Feb., 

1915, Vol. XXIII, pp. 98-104. 
101 Graves, F. P. A Student's History of Education. 

Macmillan Co., 1915, New York. 

102. Graves, F. P. Great Educators of Three Centuries: 

Their Work and Its Influence on Modem Education. 
MacmiUan Co., N. Y., 1912. 

103. Greene, I. K. English in the High Schools, High 

School Bulletin No. 5, Department of Education, 
Olympia, Washington. 

104. Gregory, B. C. Better Schools. Macmillan, New 

York, pp. 260, 1912. 

105. Griffin, J. T. Pedagogical Leaflets, Edited by J. 

T. Griffin. New York School of Method, 1800 East 
New York Avenue, Brooklyn, New York. 

100. GuTH, W. W. The Latin Entrance Requirement. 
School and Society, May 13, 1916, Vol. Ill, No. 72, 
pp. 701-705. 

107. Hakus, p. H. a Modem School. Macmillan Com- 
pany, New York, 1904, 306 pages. 



204 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 

108. Hanus, p. H. Educational Aims and Educational 

Values. MacmiUan Co., New York, 1899. pp. 211. 

109. Haegreaves, R. T. The Possibilities of the High 

School Library. Proc. N. E. A., 1915, pp. 730-734. 

110. Hartwell, E. C. The Teaching of History. Houghton 

Mifflin Co., 1913. (One of the Riverside Educa- 
tional Monographs, edited by Dr. Henry Suzzallo.) 

111. Heck, W. H. Mental Discipline and Educational 

Values. John Lane Co., New York, 1909, p. 147. 
(A summary of the arguments opposed to the dogma 
of formal discipline.) 

112. Hegland, M. The Danish People^s High School. U. 

S. Bureau of Education. Bulletin No. 45, 1915. 
Washington, D. C. 

113. HiCHMAN, W. S. Where the College Fails. Educa- 

tional Review, June, 1916, Vol. LI, pp. 57-70. 
(Some of the statements made in this article may 
be applied to the high school.) 

114. Hinsdale, B. A. How to Study and Teach History. 

D. Appleton & Co., New York, 1894. 

115. Holland, E. 0. What the Schools Can Do to Meet 

the Demands of Both Industry and General Science. 
Proc. N. E. A., 1913, pp. 707-712. 

116. Hollister, H. a. Administration of Education in 

a Democracy. Charles Scribner's Sons, N. Y., 1914. 

117. Hollister, H. A. High School Administration, D. 

C. Heath & Co., Boston, 1911. 373 pages. (An 
excellent text-book.) 

118. Hollister, H. A. Constants and Variables in tte 

High School Program of Studies. Education, Oct., 
1911, Vol. XXXII, pp. 69-74. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY OF BOOKS AND ARTICLES 205 

119. HOLLISTER, H. A. High School and Class Manage- 

ment. D. C. Heath & Co., 1915. (Chapters on the 
teaching of English and History.) 

120. Holmes, W. H. Plans of Classification in the Public 

Schools. Ped. Sem., Dec, 1911, Vol. XVIII, No. 
4, pp. 475-522. 

121. Holmes, W. H. School Organization and the In- 

dividual Child. (A book for school executives and 
teachers, being an exposition of plans that have 
been evolved to adapt school organization to the 
needs of the individual.) Davis Press, Worcester, 
Mass., 1912. 

122. Horn, P. W. The Junior High School in Houston, 

Texas. Elem. School Journal, Oct., 1915, Vol. XVI, 
pp. 91-95. 

123. HORTOF, D. W. A Plan of Vocational Guidance. 

School Review, April, 1915, Vol. XXIII, pp. 236- 
243. (A list of books on vocations is given in this 
article.) 

124. Hosic, J. F. A Summary of the Report of the Com- 

mittee on English, N. E. A., Commission on Re- 
organization of High Schools. High School Quar- 
terly, April, 1916, Vol. IV, No. 3, pp. 180-186. 

125. Hyde, Wm. De Witt. The Teacher's Philosophy in 

and out of School. Houghton Mifflin Co., 1910. 
(Riverside Educational Monographs.) 

12S. Inglis, a. a Fundamental Problem in the Reor- 
ganization of the High School. School Review, May, 
1915, Vol. XXIII, pp. 307-318. 



206 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 

127. Jackson-, L. F. A Single Aim in History Teaching. 

History Teacher's Magazine, Vol. V, pp. 245-248. 
("History alone attempts to show matters in their 
relation to time, to emphasize the importance of 
sequence in life.") 

128. Jenks, p. R. a Manual of Latin Word Formation 

for Secondary Schools. D. C. Heath & Co. 

129. Johnson, C. H., and Others. High School Education. 

Charles Scribner's Sons, New York, 1912. 

130. Johnson, C. H., and Others. The Modem High 

School, Charles Scribner's Sons, New York, 1914. 

131. Johnson, C. H. The "Social Science," Department 

of Public Administration and Supervision, June, 
1916, Vol. II, No. 6, pp. 398-401. 

132. Johnson, H. Teaching of History. Maemillan Co., 

1915, New York. 

133. Johnson, F. W. Waste in Elementary and Sec- 

ondary Education. Popular Science Monthly, July, 
1914, Vol. LXXXV, pp. 40-55. 

134. Johnson, G. R. Qualitative Elimination from High 

Schools. School Review, Dec, 1910, Vol. XVIH, 
No. 10, pp. 680-694. 

135. Jordan, D. S. The Care and Culture of Men. 

Whitaker, Ray & Co., San Francisco, 1896, pp. 267. 

136. Jordan, D. S. The Voice of the Scholar. 

137. Jordan, D. S. A Quarter Century of Stanford Uni- 

versity. School and Society, July 1, 1916, Vol. IV, 
No. 79, pp. 1-9. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY OF BOOKS AND ARTICLES 207 

138. Jordan, D. S. The High School Course. Popular 

Science Monthly, July, 1908, Vol. LXXIII, pp. 28- 
31. Also in the Educational Review, Nov., 1908, 
Vol. XXXVI, No. 8, pp. 372-376. 

139. JuDD, C. H. Psychology of High School Subjects. 

Ginn & Co., N. Y., 1915. 

140. JuDD, C. H. A Seven-year Elementary School. Proe. 

N. E. A., 1913, pp. 225-234. 

141. JuDD, C. H. The Junior High School. School Re- 

view, Jan., 1915, Vol. XXIII, pp. 25-33. 

142. JuDD, C. H. The Junior High School. School Re- 

view, April, 1916, Vol. XXIV, pp. 249-260. 

143. JUDD, C. H. Reasons for Modifying Entrance Re- 

quirements at University of Chicago. Education, 
Jan., 1912, Vol. XXXII, No. 5, pp. 266-277. 

144. JuDSON", H. P. Waste in Educational Curricula. 

School Review, Sept., 1912, Vol. XX, pp. 433-441. 

145. Ejelsey, R. W. The Text-Book Method. (An ex- 

cellent article upholding the text-book method, in 
The History Teacher's Magazine, Philadelphia, June, 
1914.) 

146. Kemp, E. W. Outline of Method in History. Inland 

Publishing Co., Terre Haute, Ind., 1897, pp. 264- 
295. "A general discussion of the use of biography 
in school. Chief emphasis upon moral value." 

147. Keith, J. A. H. The Place and Scope of Sociology. 

Proc. N. E. A., 1915, pp. 764-766. 

148. Kennedy, J. The Dam is Out! Educational Review, 

March, 1912, Vol. XLIII, No. 3, pp. 274-281. 



208 EDUCATION DimiNG ADOLESCENCE 

149. Kerschensteiner, G. The Idea of the Industrial 

School. Macmillan Co., New York, 1913. 

150. EIerschensteiner, G. The Schools and the Nation. 

(Contains four illustrations of Continuation Schools.) 
Macmillan Co., London, 1914. 

151. KiLPATRiCK, V. E. Departmental Teaching in Ele- 

mentary School. Macmillan Co., New York, 1908, 
pp. 130. 

152. King, I. The High School Age, Bobbs-Merrill Com- 

pany, Indianapolis, 1914. 

153. King, I. Education for Social Efficiency. D. Apple- 

ton, 1913. 

154. King, I. Social Aspects of Education, Macmillan 

Co., 1913, New York. See Dr. Bumham's article, The 
Group as a Stimulus to Mental Activity, pp. 358- 
363. 

155. King, I. Psychology of Child Development, Univ. 

of Chicago Press, 1907. ( See chapter on adolescence. ) 

156. Kingsley, C. D. Report of the Committee of Nine 

on the Articulation of High School and College. 
Proc. N. E. A., 1911, pp. 559-560. 

157. Kingsley, C. D. Problems Confronting the Commis- 

sion on the Reorganization of Secondary Education. 
Proc. N. E. A., 1914, pp. 483-488. 

158. KiRKPATRiCK, E. A. The Individual in the Making. 

Houghton Mifflin Co., N. Y., 1911. 

159. KiRPATRiCK, E. A. Fundamentals of Child Study. 

"A Discussion of instincts and other factors in 
human development with practical applications." 
MacmiUan Co., New York, 1903, pp. 377. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY OF BOOKS AND ARTICLES 209 

160. KuNO, E. E. How a Knowledge of Adolescent 

Characteristics May Aid One in Directing His Con- 
duct. Ped. Sem., Sept., 1914. 

161. Leavitt, F. M. Examples of Industrial Education. 

Ginn & Co., Chicago, 1912. (This book gives many 
different plans of school organization.) 

162. Lee, J. Play in Education. Macmillan Co., New 

York, 1915. 

163. Lewis, H. T. The Social Sciences in Secondary 

Schools. School Review, Sept., 1915, Vol., XXIII, 
pp. 455-464. 

164. Mann, C. R. Changes in Entrance Requirements at 

the University of Chicago, School Review, Sept., 
1911, Vol. XLII, No. 2, pp. 186-191. 

165. Mace, W. H. Method in History. Ginn & Co., 

Boston. 

136. Mace, W. H. Method in History for Teacher and 
Student. Rand, McNally & Co., Chicago, 1914. 

167. McDouGALL, W. An Introduction to Social Psy- 

chology. John W. Luce & Co., Boston, 1909. Pub- 
litehed also by Methuen & Co., 36 Essex St., London. 
The edition published by Methuen & Co., contains 
a few more chapters than the edition published by 
J. W. Luce & Co. 

168. McLaughlin, A. C. The Study of History in Schools. 

Report of the American Historical Association by 
the Committee of Seven composed of A. C. Mc- 
Laughlin, Chairman, H. B. Adams, G. L. Fox, A. 
B. Hart, C. H. Haskins, L. M. Sahnon, H. M. 
Stephens. Macmillan Co., 1900, New York. 



210 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 

169. McLaughlin", A. C. The Study of History in 

Schools. Report to the American Historical Asso- 
ciation by a Committee of Five. A. C. McLaughlin, 
Chairman, C. H. Haskins, J. H. Robinson, C. W. 
Mann, J. Sullivan, Macmillan Co., 1911, New York. 

170. McManis, J. T. Vocational Training in Chicago 

Schools. School Review, March, 1915, Vol. XXIII, 
pp. 145-158. 

171. McMuRRAY, C. A. Special Method in History. Mao- 

miUan Co., New York, 1908. 

172. MiLLiMAN, L. D. Manual of English Prose Composi- 

tion. Published by the author. University of Wash- 
ington, Seattle, Wash. (Professor Milliman in the 
first few pages of his book touches the pedagogy 
of English.) 

173. Monroe, P. Principles of Secondary Education. 

Written by a number of specialists. Macmillan 
Co., 1914, New York. 

174. Monroe, P. Cyclopedia of Education (Five volumes). 

Many of the greatest contemporary educators are 
associated with Dr. Monroe as departmental editors, 
together with more than one thousand individual 
contributors. Macmillan Co., New York, 1911-13. 

175. MONTESSORi, M. My System of Education. Proc. 

N. E. A., 1915, pp. 64-73. 

176. Moore, E. C. What is Education? Ginn & Co., 1916. 

177. MuLFORD, R. J. College Entrance Requirements. See 

Outlook, Sept. 6, 1913, p. 49. (The author main- 
tains that too many studies are required.) 

178. O'Shea, M. V. Dynamic Factors in Education. Mac- 

millan Co., N. Y., 1906, pp. 299. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY OF BOOKS AND ARTICLES 211 

179. O'Shea, M. V. Work and Play of Youth, Proc. 

N. E. A., 1901, pp. 513-523. 

180. Paeker, S. C. Methods of Teaching in High Schools. 

Ginn & Co., 1915. (This work contains many 
valuable suggestions.) 

181. Paesons and Shephard. Causes of Leaving Schools'. 

School and Society, May 27, 1916, Vol. Ill, No. 74, 
pp. 791-793. 

182. Paul, G. F. Human Interest Composition Subjects. 

C. W. Baxdeen, 1916, Syracuse, N. Y., 162 pages. 

183. Pearson, F. B. The Vitalized School. Macmillan 

Co., 1917, Chapters VII and XV. 

184. Phelps, W. L. Teaching in School and College. 

MacmiUan Co., 1912, New York. (The author de- 
votes three chapters to the teaching of English.) 

185. Phillips, D. E. The Elective System in American 

Education. Pedagogical Seminary, June, 1900, Vol. 
VIII, No. 2, pp. 206-231. 

186. Phillips, D. E. The Child vs. Promotion Machin- 

ery. Journal of Education, pp. 299-300. Boston, Vol. 
LXXV, March 14, 1912. 

187. Potter, M. C. High School Courses. Proc. N. E. A., 

1913, pp. 485-488. 

188. Preston, J. C, and Others. Harmonizing Vocational 

and Cultural Education. Proc. N. E. A., 1914, pp. 
375-386. 

189. Pyle, W. H. Educational Psychology. Baltimore, 

Warwick & York, 1911. (Discusses many of the 
most important instincts.) 



212 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 

190. Rapeer, L. W. College Entrance Requirements. 

School and Society, April 15, 1916, Vol. in, No. 
68, pp. 549-556. 

191. Rapeer, L. W. College Entrance Requirements — the 

Judgment of Educators. School and Society, Jan. 
8, 1916, Vol. Ill, No. 54, pp. 45-49. 

192. Robertson, W. S. A Brief List of Books on the 

Social Sciences. Educational Administration and 
Supervision, June, 1916. Vol. II, No. 6, pp. 371- 
376. 

193. Robinson, E. V. D. Reorganization of the Grades 

and the High School. School Review, Dec, 1912, 
Vol. XX, No. 10, pp. 665-688. 

194. Robinson, J. H. The New History. Macmillan Co., 

N. Y., 1912. 

195. Roosevelt, T. The High School and the College. 

Outlook, May, 1913, pp. 66-68. 

196. Roosevelt, T. History as Literature. American 

Historical Review, April, 1913, Vol. XVIII, pp. 
473-489. 

197. Royce, J. Herbert Spencer. Fox, Duffield & Co., 

New York, 1904. (A chapter is devoted to Herbert 
Spencer's Educational Theories, pp. 121-185.) 

198. Rusk, R. R. Introduction to Experimental Educa- 

tion. Longmans, Green & Co., 1912. 

199. Sabin, H. Common Sense Didactics. Rand, McNally 

& Co., Chicago, p. 342. 

200. Sachs, J. The American Secondary School, and 

Some of Its Problems. Macmillan Co., 1912, N. Y. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY OF BOOKS AND ARTICLES 213 

801. Sanders, F. W. The Reorganization of Our Schools, 
The Pahner Co., 1915, Boston. 

202. Sa^tdwick, R. L. How to Study and What to Study^ 

D. C. Heath & Co., 1915, pp. 170, Boston. 

203. Scott, C. A. Social Education, Ginn & Co., New 

York, 1908. 

204. Scott, C. A. Socialized High School Curriculums 

and Courses of Study. A Chapter in Johnson and 
Others, The Modern High School, pp. 229-245. 
Charles Scribner's .Sons, N. Y., 1914. 

205. SissoN, E. 0. The Essentials of Character. Mac- 

millan Co. ("A forceful direct discussion of the 
subject of character as springing from native im- 
pulses and tendencies, which moral education must 
direct into the service of human ideals.") 

206. Smith, W. H. All the Children of all the People. 

MacmiUan Co., 1912, N. Y. 

207. Smith, W. R. The Future of Economics and the 

Social Studies in the High School. Kansas' School 
Magazine, Feb., 1912, Vol. I, pp. 70-80. 

208. Smith, W. R. Introduction to Educational Sociology. 

Houghton Mifflin Company, 1917. 

209. Shaw, E. R. School Hygiene. MacmiUan Co., N. 

Y., 1901. 255 pages. 

210. Shawkey, M. p. Some New Problems for ^Ee Old 

School. Proe. N. E. A., 1915, pp. 691-694. 

211. SiDERS, W. R. The American High School: Its Rela- 

tion to the Schools Below. Proc. N. E. A., 1912, 
pp. 161-168. 



Z14 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 

212. Slaughter, J. W. The Adolescent. Macmillan 

Company, 1915. 

213. Snedden, D. High Schools, New and Old. School 

and Society, May 1, 1915. Vol. I, No. 18, pp. 621-626. 

214. Snedden, D. What of Liberal Education. Atlantic 

Monthly, Jan., 1912, Vol. CIX, pp. 111-117. 

215. Snedden, D., and Dutton, S. T. The Administra- 

tion of Public Education in the United States. Mac- 
millan Co., N. Y., 1909. 

216. Snedden, D. The Pros and Cons of the Gary Sys- 

tem. Proc. N, E. A., 1915, pp. 363-373. 

217. Snedden, D. New Problems in Secondary Educa- 

tion. School Review, March, 1916, Vol. XXIV, pp. 

177-187. 

218. Snedden, D. The Opportunity of the Small High 

School. The School Review, Feb., 1912, Vol. XX, 
No. 2, pp. 98-110. 

219. Snedden, D. An Educational Quest. School and 

Society, June 10, 1916, Vol. Ill, No. 76, pp. 833-843. 

220. Snedden, D. High School Education as a Social 

Enterprise. A chapter in Johnson and Others, The 
Modern High School, pp. 20-40. Charles Scribner's 
Sons, N. Y., 1914. 

221. Snedden, D. The Reorganization of Secondary Educa- 

tion. A chapter in Monroe's Principles of Secondary 
Education. Macmillan Co., N. Y., 1915, pp. 744-745. 

222. Snedden, D. Social Opportunities of New York City 

High Schools. Charities and the Commons, April 
25, 1908, Vol. XX, pp. 133-138. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY OF BOOKS AND ARTICLES 215 

223. Snedden", D. Teaching of History in Secondary 

Schools. History Teacher's Magazine, Nov., 1914, 
pp. 277-282. (See G. L. Burr's article in the same 
issue, pp. 283-287.) 

224. Snedden, Weeks, Cubberley. Vocational Educa- 

tion: Its Theory, Administration and Practice. 
Houghton Mifflin Co., New York, 1910. 

225. Sneddejst, D. The Character and Extent of Desirable 

Flexibility as to Courses of Instruction and Training 
for Youths of 12 to 14 years of Age. Educational 
Administration and Supervision, April, 1916, Vol. 
II, pp. 219-234. 

226. Spaulding, F. E. Problems of Vocational Guidance. 

Proc, N. E. A., 1915, pp. 331-335. 

227. Spencer, H. Education — Intellectual, Moral and 

Physical. D. Appleton Co., N. Y., 1910. 

228. Staples, C. L. A Critique of High School Latin. 

Ped. Sem., Dec, 1912, Vol. XIX, No. 4, pp. 492-509. 

229. Starr, L. The Adolescent Period. P. Blakiston's 

Sons & Co., Philadelphia, Pa., 1915. 

230. Stout, J. E. The High School: Its Function, Or- 

ganization and Administration. D. C. Heath & Co., 
Boston, 1914. (See Chapter XI, The Social Studies, 
and Chapter XIII, English.) 

231. Strachan, G. C. Future Outlook and Possibilities of 

Elementary Education. Proe. N. E. A., 1915, pp. 
616. 

232. Strater, G. D. A Brief Course in the Teaching 

Process. Macmillan Co., N. Y., 1911. (An excel- 
lent work.) 



216 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 

233. Strong, F., and Others. Economy of Time in Educa- 

tion. Proc. N. E. A., 1914, pp. 383-404. 

234. SuzzALLO, Henry. Educational Methods, Cyclopedia 

of Education. Macmillan Co., N. Y., 1911. 

235. SuzzALLO, Henry, and Burnham, W. H. History 

of Education as a Professional Subject. Teachers 
College, Columbia University, New York, 1908. 

236. SuzzALLO, Henry. Introduetons to the Riverside 

Educational Monographs. (These monographs are 
edited by Dr. Suzzallo. Houghton MiflSin Co., New 
York.) 

237. Talbington, H. L. How to Study and Teach His- 

tory and Civics in the Grades. Public School Pub- 
lishing Co., Bloomington, 111. 

238. Tanner, A. E. The Child (Revised Edition) Rand, 

McNaUy & Co., New York. 

239. Taylor, J. S. A Handbook of Vocational Education. 

Macmillan Co., N. Y., 1914. 

240. Teacher's College Record. History Course in the 

Horace Mann High School, March, 1906, Vol. VII, 
pp. 51-67. Macmillan Co. (Agents.) 

241. Terman, L. M. The Hygiene of the School Child. 

Houghton Mifflin Co., N. Y., 1914. 

242. Thomas, C. S. How to Teach English Classics. 

("Principles in Teaching English" with questions 
on English classics.) Houghton Mifflin Co., 1910, 
132 pages. 

243. Thompson, F. V. Vocational Guidance in Boston. 

School Review, Feb., 1915, Vol. XXIII, pp. 105-112. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY OF BOOKS AND ARTICLES 217 

244. Thorndike, E. L. Individuality. Houghton Mifflin 

Co., 1911, New York. 

245. Thorndike, E. L. Education — ^A First Book. Mac- 

niiUan Co., 1912, New York. 

246. TaoRNDiKE, E. L. Elimination of Pupils from 

School. Washington Gov't. Print. Office, 1908, pp. 
63. U. S. Bur. of Educ. Bulletin No. 4, 1907. 

247. Tracy, F. and Siitclair, S. B. Introductory Educa- 

tional Psychology. Macmillan Co., of Canada, 
Toronto, 1912. 

248. Tryon, R. M. The Organization of United States 

History for Teaching Purposes in Grades Seven and 
Eight. Elem. School Journal, Jan., 1916, Vol. XVI, 
pp. 247-256. 

249. Ward, E. J. The Social Center. D. Appleton & Co., 

1913. 

250. Waylaih), J. W. How to Teach American History. 

Macmillan Co., New York, 1914. 

251. West, H. S. A Junior High School. School Re- 

view, Feb., 1916, Vol. XXIV, pp. 142-151. 

252. Whitney, W. T. The Socialized Recitation. A. S. 

Barnes Co., New York City. 

253. Wheeler, G. The Six Year High School. School 

Review, April, 1913. 

254. Whipple, G. M. How to Study Effectively. Public 

School Publishing Co., Bloomington, 111. 

255. Whipple, G. M. Psychology and Hygiene of 

Adolescence. A chapter in Paul Monroe's Prin- 
ciples of Secondary Education, pp. 246-312. Mac- 
millan Co., 1914. 



218 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 

256. Wilson, G. M., and H. B. The Motivation of School 

Work. Houghton Mifflin Co., 1916, Boston. 

257. Wilson, H. B. Report of Committee on Economy 

of Time in Elementary Education. Proc. N. E. A., 
1915, pp. 402-410. 

258. Wilson, Woodrow. Mere Literature and Other 

Essays, 1896, pp. 161-186. Houghton Mifflin Co., 
N. Y., 1900. 

259. Wheatley, W. A. Vocational Information for 

Pupils in a Small City. School Review, March, 
1915, Vol. XXIII, pp. 175-180. 

260. WiNSHiP, A. E. Standards — ^Wise and Otherwise. 

Proc. N. E. A., 1915, pp. 528-533. 

261. ZiMMERS, J. P. Teaching Boys and Girls How to 

Study. Parker Educational Co., Madison, Wiscon- 
sin, 1918. 



INDEX 



Adolescent psychology, 3-5, 42, 49. 
Advantages of the Socialized Recitation, 180-189. 
Advantages of the Six and Six Plan of Organization, 28-34. 
Aims of the high school, 14-18. 
Aims of the Socialized Recitation, 158-154. 
Angell, J. R., author of an article in the School Review, 
Sept., 1911, 40 n., 45, 46. 

Berkeley, Calif., high school, 19-28. 

Boise, Idaho, high school course, 44. 

Bolton, F. E., Reference to his Principles of Education and 

his views on the Doctrine of Interest in Education, 

41 n. 
Boston, "General High School Course," 44, 61, 62. 
Bunker, F. F., 22, 27. 
Burnham, W. H., 15 n., 64, 70 n. 
Butler, N. M., quoted 66, 86 n., 103. 

Changes Proposed in Secondary Education, 59-78. 
Chicago University Entrance Requirements, 39 n., 45, 46. 
Civics, sociology, and economics, 17, 37, 58, 62, 63, 65-69, 

79, 93. 
College entrance requirements, 39 n., 40, 43, 45, 46, 51, 52. 
College professors and the high school situation, 6-9. 
Conduct of classes in history, 154-158. 
Constants and Electives in the High School, 57-78. 
Cooper, F. B., quoted, 182, 183. 
Course in Elementary Sociology in High School, 79 n. 

219 



220 INDEX 

Criticism of the Junior High School of Berkeley, Cali- 
fornia, 25. 
"Cultivated Man," Dr. Eliot's definition, 72-74. 
Cultural subjects and vocational instruction, 61-65. 

Davis, C. O., 21. 

Diversity of college entrance requirements, 39 n., 40, 43, 45, 
46, 51, 52. 

Education for Citizenship, 59-78. 

Educators on Election in Education, 39-58. 

Elective System in High School, 39-58, 60. 63, 78. 

Elementary education, 20-23. 

Eliot, C. W., quoted, 42, 43, 56, 72-74, 102, 106, 114-115. 

Eliot, C. W., on the safest guides to a wise choice of 

studies, 42. 
EngUsh, 23 n., 37, 40, 58, 62, 63, 69, 98-123. 
Example of a Project in Modern History, 165-172. 
Experiment in teaching a high school course in Elementary 

Sociology, 79 n. 

Fitting for college versus fitting for life, 5-7. 

Flexibility of the course, 61-63. 

Foreign languages, 16, 17. 

Formal Discipline, 47, 48. 

Foster, W. T., on the elective system, 50-55. 

"General Course" of the Seattle High Schools, 45, 61, 62. 

Hall's, G. S., Views, 1-14, 18, 29. 30, 32-34, 47, 48, 80-93, 

98-101, 109-123. 
High School, Berkeley, California, 19-28. 
History, 17, 23 n., 24, 35, 37, 58, 62, 63, 124-138. 

1. Value of History, 124-138. 

2. Method in History, 138-153. 

3. History Recitation Socialized, 153-189. 

(1). The Aims of the Plan, 153-154. 

(2). How Classes are Conducted, 154-158. 



INDEX 221 

(3). Problem Method and Socialized Recitation, 

158-165. 
(4). Example of a Project in Modem History, 

165-172. 
(5). Socialized Recitation from Student's Stand- 
point, 172-179. 
(6). What are the Advantages of the Socialized 
Recitation, 180-189. 
Holding students in high school, 25-28. 
Holland, E. O., quoted 48 n., 49 n. 
Hulme, E. M., 165, 167 n. 

Individuality recognized, 6-11, 41. 
Ideal high school course, 45, 46, 61, 62. 
Initiative and Referendum, 67. 

Judd, C. H., author of an article on Education, Jan., 1912, 

39 n. 
Jordan, D. S., quoted, 40, 46, 55, 57. 
Junior High School Curriculum, 24, 35, 36. 

Latin in high school, 100-108. 
Leavitt, F. M., 22, 27 n. 

Mann, C. R., author of an article in the Educational Re- 
view, Sept., 1911, 39 n. 
Meany, E. S., quoted, 140. 
Method in History, 138-153. 

N. E. A., Committee on secondary education, 49, 64. 

O'Shea, M. V., 48. 

Palmer, F. H., quoted, 181, 182, 
Part-time schools, 60. 
Percentage of those vrho leave school, 27. 
Personal culture, 16, 71-74, 



222 INDEX 

Physical well-being, 14. 

Principle of Election in Education, 39-58. 

Problem Method and Socialized Recitation, 158-172. 

Proposed Junior High School Program, 35-36. 

Proposed Senior High School Program, 37, 38. 

Psychology of Adolescence^ 3-5, 42, 49. 

Recitation Socialized, 153-189. 

Recognition of individual differences by the 1911 Committee 

of Nine of the N. E. A., 41. 
Reed College Entrance Requirements, 39. 
Reorganization of the high school, 19-38, 59-78. 
Required Studies in the High School, 23, 37, 60, 62, 70, 

77, 78. 

Seattle High School Courses, 45, 61, 62. 
Senior High School Program, 37, 38. 
Six year high school curricula, 19-38. 
Snedden, David, 16 n., 48 n., 117-118. 
Social efficiency, 17, 71-74. 
Social Problems, 69, 74, 79. 
Socialized Recitation, 153-189. 
Spencer, H., and G. Stanley Hall, quoted, 47, 48. 
Stanford University Entrance Requirements, 40, 45. 
State College of Washington Entrance Requirements, 39 n. 
Students' Opinion of the Socialized Recitation, 172-179. 
Suzzallo, Henry, Editor of Riverside Educational Mono- 
graphs, 16 n., 41, 42 n. 

Teachers' duty, 60. 

Training for Citizenship, 59-78. 

University of Chicago Entrance Requirements, 39 n., 45, 46. 

Value of History, 138-153. 
Vocational guidance, 15, 75-78. 





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